friends r./v/ /,/ Tom I !< had no friends unles* might be so considered. might be so conoid- 100 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH (c) // and whether. Do not use if in the place of whether in such a sentence as "I do not know if I can go." Whether is preferable here and or not may be added, if desired, to show an alternative. "I can go if he does" is perfectly correct, however. (d) Like as a conjunction. The misuse of like as a conjunc- tion, in place of as or as if or as though, is very common in some parts of the United States. Yet no blunder is more likely to brand one in the eyes of those who are careful. EXAMPLES: (Incorrect) (Correct) (1) It looks like it would rain. (1) It looks as if it would rain. (2) I wish you could play like your (2) I wish you could play as your sister does. sister does. Probably some of the confusion in this matter is due to the fact that in example 2 (incorrect), like would be perfectly proper if does were omitted. In "I wish you could play like your sister," like performs the office of a preposition. But it has not been accepted by careful writers and speakers as a conjunction. (e) Than is a conjunction. For this reason we cannot say, "I am taller than him," making it a preposition followed by the objective (accusative) form him. We must say, "I am taller than he (is)." "I chose her rather than him" is correct, however; not because than is a preposition, but because him is the object in the elliptical second clause, just as her is the object in the first clause. In other words, this sentence, fully expressed, means, "I chose her rather than (I chose) him." (f) As .... as and so .... as. In a positive compari- son we use as .... as. EXAMPLE: Cleveland is as large as Cincinnati. In a negative comparison we generally use so .... as. EXAMPLE: Chicago is not so large as New York. EXERCISE 35 (a) Insert except or without or unless in the blanks below: 1. One cannot win in the business field by making a careful study of each detail. 2. They all went fishing John. PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS 101 3. He never went his coat in warm weather. 4. One cannot hope to get more pay for his work he does more work for his pay. 5. when the editor accepts manuscripts, the writer a previous understanding does not hear from his paper he sends return postage. (b) Make whatever improvements you can in the connec- tives of the following sentences: 1. I don't know if I can go or not. 2. Your instructions are not clear and I failed to get the answer. (Try rearrangement with because.) 3. Do not decrease the time of exposure; cut down the light. (What word after the semicolon would help the sense?) 4. One should dress neatly. He should not be fastidious. (What word would connect these two sentences to advantage?) 5. He was hungry and he stole a loaf of bread. 6. It looks like I'd have to try again. 7. Let us try and find out what is good. EXERCISE 36 What conjunction would you use in each of the following nccs? List the conjunctions as coordinating and sub- ordinating. 1. He wore a heavy coat the day was warm. 'J. II e walked slowly he were lame. 3. He came in suddenly we had time to warn the family. 4. He left a dark mark he put his paws. 5. They paid their bills they had the money. 6. Mother put up lunch I got the car ready. 7 1 at her bought a hundred-dollar bond I bought a fifty. 8. He will he here on time the train is late. '.'. .Mm must come this way now the bridge is out at Dana. in \\ e hurried along it was growing late. 11. Cider vinegar is not strong distilled vinegar. 12. 1 Mary run. i th.it .lolm knows more Tom does. 102 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH EXERCISE 37 A. Which of the following sentences need semicolons before the italicized words? (Read again Section 78b.) 1. He came slowly through the hall as though nothing had happened. 2. He has a cold besides I feel the day is too raw. 3. He was not well tfierefore his mother kept him at home. 4. He had no small change so he passed the beggar by. 5. He was dismissed because he was not able to carry his work. B. Choose the correct word in italics in each of the follow- ntcnces. 1. I do not know (if, whether) he doesn't. 2. I do not know (if, whether) he knows. 3. Nobody else can yell (like, as) him. 4. Nobody else can yell (like, as) he does. .5. I think you can draw better than (he, him). 6. Be sure (to, and) take your time. QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER VI 1. Why is the English prej>osition so important an element in the
Language?

J. What is the distinction between between and among? In and into.'
3. Without actually expressing niynber how can you indicate it by

the use of between and among? Longer and longest? Each other and .n-< />( and without? If and whether?
ke and as if? Is "than him" good English? Why?

CHAPTER VII

ERRORS THAT CAUSE OBSCURITY

80. The Need of Clearness. The first purpose of speech
or writing is, of course, the transmission of thought. But not
all communications accomplish this end. What is the meaning
of the following sentence?

John told Charlie that his books were in his locker.

Clearly it may mean several things. It may mean that
John's books were in his own locker; that they were in Charlie's
locker; that Charlie's books were in Charlie's locker; or that
they were in John's locker. This sentence, therefore, is useless.
It is not clear.

What two meanings can you get from the following sentence?

We were in danger of being killed more than once.

Of course there is no danger of a real misunderstanding of this
sentence; the worst that can happen is a laugh at the expense
of the speaker. But it is not to one's credit to be an uncon-
srinus humorist.

It is very necessary that a writer read over what he has
written before he considers his task complete. Often small
errors of the careless kind slip in perhaps the spelling of off
with one/, or the omission of a or the omissions which leave
tin- reader uncertain as to the meaning. Obscurities some-
times result from a failure to make the first and last parts of
a sentence agree in form or sense, owing in most cases to the
Hiperinr speed of the mind over the hand. Clear, pn

i-h is not easily written. It is often necessary to recast
and paragraphs to make sure that there is no po--
>ibility of a misunderstanding.

Th' M chapters have dealt with the fundamental

sentence and the parts ,, .. The following

103

104 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

sections will single out for special attention a number of com-
mon errors that result in obscurity.

81. Misplaced Words, Phrases, or Clauses. The second
bad sentence in the previous section illustrates the principle
that modifiers should usually be placed as near as possible to
the words they modify. Some very absurd statements result
from misplaced words. Why are the following sentences am-
biguous? Explain the change of position of the modifiers
necessary to correct the trouble.

1. Wanted: Girls to sew buttons on the 8th floor.

2. I saw a man digging a well with a large nose.

Be especially careful to place the adverb near the word it
modifies. Note the error in the following sentence :

(Incorrect) (Correct)

It is the largest fish I almost ever It is almost the largest fish I ever
caught. (I "almost caught" it.) caught.

EXERCISE 38

Correct the following sentences, giving reasons for each
correction:

1. I planned to have my suit pressed every day this week.

2. We hurriedly packed our tents as soon as the sun rose and cooked our

breakfast.

3. Ericksen is to be tried for carrying concealed weapons on Friday.

4. Wanted: An attendant for an old lady who can walk rapidly.

5. He was untruthful; he even lied to his mother.

6. I should not pay for two meals; I only ate my breakfast.

7. She was the prettiest girl I almost ever met.

8. All the team were not present.

9. He was an ex-Italian banker.

Are you sure that you have the feeling of error when you
read the foregoing sentences? It is not enough that you see
the error; you must have a feeling akin to intuition that "It
was the best apple I almost ever ate" is really something very
different from the idea you had in mind.

ERRORS THAT CAUSE OBSCURITY 105

82. Understood Words. To save words and avoid repeti-
tion, we often omit part of one construction that corresponds
to another construction in the sentence. Thus we may have,
for instance, one object for two prepositions, or one participle
completing two verbs.

EXAMPLES:

(1) John was going to, and Charlie returning from town.

(2) We are and shall be going to church each week.

In the first example town is the object of both to and from.
In the second, are going and shall be going are the full forms, but
to avoid repetition of sound and to save words we omit the
first going.

Sometimes, however, the word following one construction
will not logically complete the other.

(Incorrect) (Correct)

We have and will continue to defy We have defied and will continue
him. to defy him.

Defied is required to complete the first verb; to defy, the second;
obviously to defy at the end of the sentence will not supply the
word defied needed to complete have.

Why is the following ambiguous? Are you sure that the
reader will "understand" the same words you have in mind?
( ' la< J. V. mder.-tood word'.' \\ h.tt i- 1 1n j>

118

114 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

in addition to the proper final mark for the one and the capital
that indicates the beginning of the other. But how are we to
show the groupings of words within a sentence? Sometimes,
of course, the meaning is so simple that no mistake is possible;
but often a sentence of twelve words may consist of two word
groups of seven and five, or three groups of four each, or
various other combinations.

We might conceivably separate word groups by spaces wider
than the space for words only.

EXAMPLE: Farther down the stream branched.

The wide space here is to prevent down and stream from coming
together, because down belongs with farther and stream with
branched; unless they are separated in some way there is danger
of a misunderstanding. But expand this sentence a little and
the grouping may be very different, thus:

Farther down the stream branched the'great highway.

Now stream belongs with down, not with branched; and branched
is the predicate verb for the subject highway. But there i< danger that the reader will see stream branched and think of stream as the subject of branched; hence the need of separating these words in some way. Of course the spacing of word groups is impractical, how- ever; for one reason, because different grades of spacing would be required. Sometimes we need to separate small groups of a few words each; sometimes combinations of such small groups. The result of an attempt to use space only would be that the reader would have to carry a ruler with him to measure accurat. - ly the size of the spaces. 88. Indicating Word Groups by Punctuation. Instead of leaving wider space between word groups than between single words, then, we long ago adopted the custom of inserting punctuation marks. In ordinary writing there are three prin- cipal grades of separation between word groups, indicated by three principal types of punctuation: PUNCTUATION 115 1. The comma (,) indicating the smallest degree of separa- tion that needs to be marked. 2. The semicolon (;). 3. The period* (.) or question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!), indicating usually the end of a sentence. USES OF THE COMMA 89. Words in a Series. Examine carefully the following sentence : Harvard Yale Brown the University of Chicago William and Mary Leland Stanford Dartmouth and Washington and Jefferson are well known educational institutions. Unless you happen to know already the names of all these institutions, can you tell certainly how many are mentioned? One ignorant of college names might easily think of Leland Stanford as Leland and Stanford two institutions, or of Washington and Jefferson as two. (In fact there are a Wash- ington University and a Jefferson College, as well as Washing- ton and Jefferson College.) There are four kinds of names in the list: (a) Single words (e. g., Yale). (b) A phrase (the University of Chicago). (c) A double form (Leland Stanford). (d) Names joined by and (e. g., William and Mary).. Obviously it is quite as necessary, in writing English as in selling , to tie up different articles in separate packages; the method in this case is the use of commas according to the rule that words in a series are separated by commas. Properly punc- tuated, the sentence above reads as follows: M, tin- I ni YI r-itv of Chicago, William and Mary, Lelnnd Stanford, Dartmouth, .-uid Washington and Jefferson are well known educational institutions. ':'! colon (:) occupied a position between the semicolon and the peri . t may now be so tuwd in rather elaborate writing; but commonly it IB tain special purposes to be dealt with in Section 99. tie daab, parentheses, quotation marks, etc., see Sections 100 ff. 116 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH There is a widespread idea, supported by some authority, that no comma is needed between the last two items of a series when a conjunction is used between them. The omission of the final comma is illogical, however, and may result in mis- understanding, as it would in the sentence just given. If the comma after Dartmouth were omitted, it would be impossible to tell whether "Dartmouth and Washington and Jefferson" meant one or two or three institutions. Or take another example : We took canned milk, potatoes, beans, coffee, bacon, and eggs on the trip. Without the comma after bacon, the reader might be justified in thinking that the popular dish bacon and eggs (cooked to- gether) was meant. The only sound rule to follow is that words in a series are separated by commas, and that a comma is necessary before a connective expressed between the last two, unless those two are related more closely than the other items in the list. 1 A series of adjectives modifying one noun on equal terms are likewise separated by commas. EXAMPLE: We went through a long, hard, dreary winter. Note that dreary, standing next to the word modified, is not separated from it. A series of adjectives modifying one noun are not always separated, however. A short series in very common use as a word group pronounced together may go without punctuation. EXAMPLES: (1) He was a noble old man. (2) She was a beautiful little girl. In cases like these it can be argued that the two adjectives are not really equal modifiers. The first sentence does not exactly mean that the man was noble and old ; it means that a certain old man (treated as if one word) was noble. Wherever this 'In business practice, however, the comma is often, though not always, omitted before and Company at the end of a firm name beginning with two or more personal names. EXAMPLES: Scott, Foreaman and Company. Longmans, Green, and Company. PUNCTUATION 117 sort of interpretation is proper, the comma (or commas) may usually be omitted. Of course the principle governing a series of words applies also to phrases and clauses. Note the following sentence: He searched in vain through the house in the front yard and about the barn. Does this mean that he searched in two places or in three? It might mean either. Correct punctuation of the series will dispel all doubt. 1. He searched in vain through the house, in the front yard, and about the barn. (Three places) 2. He searched in vain through the house in the front yard, and about the barn. (Two places) Study the following: The prodigal son left his home and his father ran through his patrimony and repented when there was nothing else to do. Unless you know the story, you are likely to think that the father ran through either his own or his son's patrimony and repented; whereas the meaning really is that the son ran through his own patrimony and repented. We have here a s of predicates for the one subject son, and they should be separated by commas according to the rule for words and phrases in a series, thus: The prodigal son left his home and his father, ran through his patri- mony, and repented when there was nothing else to do. 90. The Comma in Compound Sentences. Conjunctions are UH-t glance serve seems to have two objects, God and //-
science. But when you come to mil, you see that you have

118 VOCATIONAL FA'dLISH

misread. In other words, God and conscience belong in different
groups and should be separated by a comma in order to avoid
ambiguity.

(Correct) Serve faithfully your God, and your conscience will bo light.

While not all compound sentences are in danger of being
misunderstood in this way, it has come to be a very general
practice to separate their clauses by commas. The practice
is perfectly logical; we need to indicate the point where one
clause ends and another begins, almost as much as we need
to indicate the end of one sentence and the beginning of an-
other. Yet there are often sentences in which the relation
between short clauses is so close that a comma would be fel'
an intrusion.

I:\AMPLES: (1) I haven't done it and I don't intend to do it.

attitude of mind.)
(2) He pulled and I pushed the car. (Really one act.)

Of course if there are more than two clauses in a compound
sentence and a conjunction is expressed between only the last
two, the clauses are treated exactly like words or phrases in
a series.

EXAMPLE: I reached the ditch, I took one look behind, and then I
made a frantic leap across.

In general this section applies only to compound sentences
in which conjunctions are expressed and the clauses are not
very long and are not broken up within themselves by commas.
When the clauses are not connected by conjunctions, or are
very long and contain commas, a stronger mark of punctua-
tion is needed the semicolon. The uses of the semicolon
will be discussed in Sections 97 and 98, but one example is
inserted here to make the point of this paragraph clear.

EXAMPLE: If I had an automobile, I would make a long journey; I
would drive to California.

PUNCTUATION 119

EXERCISE 44

Punctuate the following sentences wherever you find punc-
tuation necessary. Look for possible different meanings.

1. The menu offered turtle soup milk toast pineapple ice cream potatoes

salmon halibut steak and mushrooms.
J. He put the liquid in a dirty dark red bottle.

3. They did not undertake the work because money was scarce.

4. I had oatmeal coffee toast and ham and eggs for breakfast.

5. He went to the bank for money was scarce.

6. Day after day I dropped the corn and father covered it.

7. Charles came home from college and Tom returned from the city.

8. Love rules the court the camp the grove
And men below and saints above;

For love is heaven and heaven is love.

9. The rain fell without prophets to the contrary.

10. Let every American every lover of liberty every well wisher to his

posterity swear by the blood of the Revolution never to violate in
the least particular the laws of his country. Lincoln

11. The British soldiers went after Hancock Adams and others.

1'J. We must work for our employer expects this task to be finished by

noon.
l.'-J. She is the darling of my heart

And she lives in our alley. Henry Carey

14. Men may come and men may go

But I go on forever. Tennyson

10. Her first efforts were failures: the meat burned the eggs ran together

and she forgot entirely to put baking powder in the biscuits.
Iti. Through the heat of day the chill of evening and even into the slow

cold hours of early morning she watched by the cot.
17. Tru-t when you can but know your man. Adage

Is. I returned for Modest inc pushed her briskly forward and after a sharp

asc nty minutes reached the edge of the plateau

n we were on the high road and surprise seized on my mind as
1 Ix-held a village of some magnitude close :it hand.

"Travels with a Donkey," Stevenson

91. Interruption of the Thought. A well constructed sen-

e has an onward movement like the How of a river. Some-
time, in a stream, we see an eddy in the current, and after a

120 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

little the water moves out again on its way. The sentence
current, too, sometimes stops to allow the thought to wander
a little way off the main course, and after a slight pause re-
sumes its onward motion. Such an "eddy" is generally marked
by commas before and after it. There is no such "eddy" in
the following compound sentence; so, except for the comma
between the clauses, it is uninterrupted by punctuation:

The roads were sufficiently dry by noon, and we moved forward with
considerable < Now suppose we break the movement in the first clause to add a bit of information, not necessary to a complete idea, but useful as explanation by the way. This "eddy" we set off by commas, thus: The roads, under the influence of the July sun, were sufficiently dry by noon, < t. Next let us put an "eddy" into the second me-mhrr, and like- wise set it off by commas: .. .. and we moved forward, in spite of our wagon difficulties, with considerable ease. The complete sentence now reads: The roads, under the influence of the July sun, were sufficiently dry by noon, and we moved forward, in spite of our wagon difficul- ties, with considerable ease. Not infrequently the delay comes at the beginning of the sentence ; that is, the flow of thought does not really commence until a kind of preparatory statement has been made. A comma usually follows such an expression. EXAMPLE: In the face of all opposition, he determined to trust his own judgment. Sometimes a complete assertion has been made before the extra thought is added. In such cases a comma usually pre- cedes the added idea. EXAMPLE: We moved forward slowly, the roads being very muddy. PUNCTUATION 121 Failure to set off properly such an added idea may result in ambiguity. EXAMPLE : Stevenson was carried into the house between his wife and his body servant Sosimo losing consciousness at once. At first glance we might read, "Sosimo losing consciousness," etc. Then we see that Sosimo must be separated from losing because the last four words constitute an added phrase telling something more about Stevenson. The added thought, whether at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end, may consist of a single word, a phrase, or a clause. EXAMPLES : (a) He turned around, however, and started back (word). (b) I am sure, on the contrary, that you are wrong (phrase). (c) The case, as / see it, is very plain (clause). Single words such as therefore, nevertheless, indeed, perhaps, also, likewise, too, are not always set off by commas. When the connection is so close and the movement of the sentence so smooth that there is no natural pause in reading, any of these words, and others of similar kind, may be inserted without commas. EXAMPLES: (1) I was therefore late to the meeting. (2) What he says is nevertheless a fact. (3) He was very angry indeed. (4) I was perhaps a little hasty. (5) I also would like to hear him. Notice the difference between the foregoing examples and the following where commas are needed: 1. The truth, therefore, is that he was a traitor. 2. My contention, nevertheless, is well founded. 3. This, indeed, was a stronger position. One type of interruption that is often made the basis of a separate rule occurs when the name of a person or thing ad- ed is in~<-rt-l. Such a naiic "IT by commas. EXAMPLK: 'IVll me, John, P think of tin-. 122 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Possible ambiguity resulting from a failure to observe this rule is very readily illustrated. Note the difference in meaning between the following sentences: 1. Strike John and I will follow you. 2. Strike, John, and I will follow you. 92. Restrictive and Non-restrictive Expressions. Some- times it is difficult to decide whether an idea is really added is an "eddy" distinct from the main current of the sentem <-, or is necessary tq the meaning. For this reason some study of restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers is necessary. To restrict is to limit, or cut down. For instance, in the sentence, "A dog took the meat," we have a general statement that might apply to any dog. But if we add the adjective wh itc, giving us the sentence, "A white dog took the meat," we greatly limit the idea dog by excluding all dogs of colors other than white. A phrase or a clause, just as truly as a word, may limit or restrict the word it modifies. EXAMPLES: (a) The house with the large front yard is mine (phrase). (b) The house that has the large front yard is mine (clause). These sentences imply that, among several houses that might be mentioned, one particular house with a large front yard is meant. In other words, they restrict the meaning of the word house. Restrictive modifiers are not set off by commas. Now examine the following sentence: My uncle's house, which was built before tfie Civil War, is still in good repair. This sentence, as punctuated, does not imply that my uncle has several houses and that the particular one among them that was built before the Civil War is in good repair. The clause in italics, and between commas, adds an interesting fact about my uncle's house its age. Omit the inserted clause and the sen- tence is still clear, though not so interesting or complete; but omit the restrictive phrase or the restrictive clause in the pre- PUXrn ATIOX 123 ceding examples (a) and (b) and one immediately wonders, "What house?" The sentence seems incomplete without the restrictive phrase or clause. A non-restrictive phrase or clause, then, as its name suggests, does not restrict or limit; on the contrary, it adds to the idea of the word it modifies. And in adding to the idea, the non- restrictive phrase or clause forms an "eddy" that needs to be cut off from the main current by commas. This very important distinction between restrictive^ and non-restrictive applies to many kinds of phrases and clauses. We have had examples of a restrictive adjective phrase and a restrictive and a non-restrictive relative clause. Study also the following sentences: 1. Adjectives and adjective phrases. Restrictive Non-restrictive A damsel dark met me with a The little girl, red and angry, smile. frowned at me. 2. Participles and participial phrases. -trictive Non-restrictive The man waving his hat is my My brother, waving his hat wildly, brother. called to me to hurry. (A particular man is indicated.) 3. Clauses with "where." -trictive Non-restrictive I found a place where we might rest. Galena, where Grant was born, is in tilar place.) northwestern Illinois. (An added detail about Galena.) 1. Clauses with "when." Restrictive Non-restrictive I will come \rhcH I please. \\ nine o'clock, when all ims tinilar timc.j quiit, they began their search. 5. Clauses with "if." t rid ive Non-n\ word Mary, being set off by
comma-, im-n-ly adds the girl's name a relatively unimportant
matter. It is non-restrictive. But in sentence (a), her
daughter Mori/ excludes her daughter Alice, and any other
daughter she may have. That is, if some one asked the

126 VOCATIONAL KNGLISH

question, "Is either of her daughters married?" the answer
would be, "Yes, her daughter Mary is married." Mary is
here almost an adjective; it restricts the meaning of the word
daughter to her "Mary daughter," not her "Alice daughter."
Being restrictive, it is not set off by commas.

When, then, an appositive has this restrictive relation, or
when a brief appositive is thought of or spoken as purl of
an unbroken phrase with the word it explains (as in the poet
Tennyson, I myself, etc.), commas are not needed. An
appositive noun clause directly 'following the word it explains
is also not usually set off.

EXAMPLE: The fact that I was cold disturbed him very much.

In this case, again, the restrictive rule applies; the clause
clearly restricts the assertion to one particular fact. But the
general rule for appositives remains, that unless there is some
good reason for not setting them off, they are set off by commas.
Study the following sentence carefully; it may not mean
what you think it does.

His wife did not like asparagus or parsnips, and he could not eat
oyster plant or salsify.

How many vegetables are named? Are you sure of your
count? One of the vegetable names is an appositive; salxify
is another name for <;//x/rr plant. Therefore we shall have to set off salsify block it away from the expression with which it is in apposition. His wife did not like asparagus or parsnips, and he could not eat oyster plant, or salsify. Can you be sure, on the first reading, what this sentence means? All came to see John as well as the others. Do you find two possible meanings? Is John the object of see, or is it in apposition with all, the subject of came? In the latter case, a comma before John is plainly needed. Punctuate PUNCTUATION 127 the sentence in this way and there is no possible doubt as to the meaning: All came to see, John as well as the others. 94. Commas at "Both Ends." One general principle, already stated, is so often violated, either through careless- - or through failure to understand it, that it deserves the emphasis of a special section. Every sort of "eddy" that interrupts the flow of the sentence, if it is not at the beginning or the end, requires a comma both before it and after it. If a comma is required before such an interpolated expression, whether it be a word of address, an appositive, a non-restrictive phrase or clause, or any kind of word, phrase, or clause that makes an "eddy," there must also be a comma after it. Viola- tion of this principle is very careless, and may result in ambig- uity. Notice the following examples: (Ambiguous) (Clear) (1) The officer prepared to do his (1) The officer, prepared to do his duty, drew his revolver and duty, drew his revolver and stepped forth. stepped forth. (2) My brother, waving his hat (2) My brother, waving his hat wildly called to me to hurry. wildly, called to me to hurry. Or: My brother, waving his hat, wildly called to me to hurry. 95. Avoiding Ambiguity. In certain emergencies not pre- cisely covered by the foregoing sections, the comma may be needed to prevent misunderstanding or to warn the eye not iin words together. Examine this sentence: rd tlio rich rm-n who have dealings with thorn are always sorvilr but ungrateful. Do you have a sensation of mild distraction as you try to read it'.' When you get to are, you see that something is wnmir. to the end in M-jin-h of a subject for are; then you reread an exasperating process. If you are diligent may discover that rich is not here an adjective modifying 128 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH men, but the noun of a phrase consisting of the first three words. In othei words, rich men is not here a word group, and should be divided because it looks so much like one. Placing a comma after rich corrects the difficulty. Toward the rich, men who have dealings with them are always servile but ungrateful. The following sentences illustrate similar emergencies: 1. In 1911, 895 cases were reported. 2. Toward little l-'red. Brown was almost tender. 3. That Cod is, is true. 4. Months before, \ve had done it. 5. He went to the bank, for money was scarce. In some of t: 68, the expressions thai are set off can be accounted for as "eddies" before or after the main current of the sentence; but the chances of misunderstanding are so obvious that it seems worth while to jiive these as examples of punctuation to avoid ambiguity. 96. Some Conventional Uses of the Comma. (a) A comma is used after /yr.s and n<> within a sentence,
and usually after oh (though oh may be followed by an
exclamation mark). is not usually set off by any mark.

EXAMPLES: (1) Yes, I think I shall go.

(2) Oh, how you startled me!

(3) Oh! I thought you had gone.

(b) A direct quotation of not more than a sentence is
separated by a comma from the words that introduce it.
If the main sentence is resumed after the quotation, a comma
(inside the quotation mark) follows the quoted words unless
the quotation requires some other punctuation mark.

EXAMPLES:

(1) He shouted warningly to the man at tke wheel, "Look out for

the tug!"

(2) I heard him say, "That is all," and then I heard no more.

(3) I heard him ask, "What is the matter?" and then I heard no

more.

PUNCTUATION 12!)

A very short quotation a mere word or phrase woven
closely into the structure of the main sentence need not be
off by commas.

EXAMPLE: This is what he called his "house beautiful."

(c) A comma is sometimes used to mark the omission of
words needed for complete grammatical construction, but
readily understood from what precedes.

Kx AMPLE: Fred chose New York; John, Chicago.

There is a decided tendency, however, to abandon this old and
often stated rule whenever there is no obvious awkwardness
or ambiguity if the comma is omitted.

EXAMPLE: One boy chose wealth, another fame, a third friends.

\

(d) A comma is used in writing dates to separate the name
of the month, or some other time division, from the year; and
in writing addresses, to separate the name of the state or
country from the name of the town or city (and in other cases
of similar nature).

EXAMPLES: (1) It was Christmas, 1917.

(2) January 2, 1918.

(3) He lived in Bloomington, Illinois.

EXERCISE 46

Punctuate the following:

1. Ramonu foil in love with Alessandro the sheep-shearer.

2. '1 little food for the hungry sick or well.

3. In the cellar stops were heard.

4. Attila the "Scourge of God" devastated Europe.

.e authorities did not prohibit the sale of opium or cocaine.

6. The authorities did not prohibit the sale of sodium chloride or table

7. In honor of tin- dead bell- were tolled slowly.

-.Kof the Khyber Rifles.

.'. o inferences possible.)

K). 1 '.lion of these ordinary contracts ure preferable.

]1. Napoleon the world's greatest. Helma an island

off the coast of one of our own continents South America

130 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

12. Our forefathers sturdy and industrious founded a great commonwealth.

13. Our greatest inventions the flyin.u; machine the wireless and the electric

light are not yet a generation old.

14. Do you want tea or coffee? (Two meanings.)

15. Blessinus on thee little man

HarH'oot boy with cheek of tan. Whittier

16. I will write your friend Miss Reed today.

17. "Yes" I told him "I fe.-l that way too."

18. Uncle Silas '"lowed" that I was "keerect" hut warned me "You'd

better go slow young man."

19. Suppose your task my little man

Is very hard to get
Will it make it any easier

For you to sit and fret'.' Phoebe Gary

USES OF THE SEMICOLON

97. In Compound Sentences. The semicolon (;) has been
mentioned (Section 88) as a punctuation mark indicatit
decree of separation between word groups intermediate be-
tween the i-light drirn indicated by the comma, and the
complete separation indicated by the three marks that are
used at the ends of sentences.

\\ e have seen (Section 90) that the parts of a compound sen-
tence, when a connective is used, are frequently separated by
a comma. Often, however, no connective (or conjunction)
i* used. In such a case the two clauses are really two distinct
statements that might be punctuated as separate sentences,
but because of some thought relation between them the writer
prefers to make them a single sentence by using a semicolon.

EXAMPLE: He knows them thoroughly; he has spent months among
them.

When a semicolon is properly used in such a sentence, it is
generally possible to supply a connective; and if a connective
is supplied, the semicolon is usually replaced by a comma.

EXAMPLE: He knows them thoroughly, for he has spent months
among them.

We might state this practice mathematically and our rule

PUNCTUATION 131

would fit the great majority of cases: One comma plus one
conjunction equals one semicolon.

The student must not get the idea, however, that he can put
any two clauses together and cement them with a semicolon.
A compound sentence, like any other kind of sentence, must be
unified; that is, its parts must be related. If they are not
related, there is no true sentence.

EXAMPLE: Edwin Booth had a great aversion to rehearsals; he was a
relative of the man who shot Lincoln.

Obviously, though both of these statements are about Edwin
Booth, the actor, they have no such relation that they can be
run together with a semicolon as a single sentence.

One of the most common sources of error in students'
composition is the notion that such words as accordingly, con-
sequently, hence, however, indeed, moreover, nevertheless, still, then,
therefore ,1 are connectives of such a nature that they may
introduce a clause after a comma only. All these words, when
introducing a second member of a compound sentence without
some undoubted conjunction such as and, must be preceded by
a semicolon; and even the word so (when equivalent to therefore
or so that) ought to be preceded by a semicolon.

EXAMPLES:

(Incorrect, (Correct)

(1) It was very cold, consequently (1) It was very cold; consequently

I turned up my collar. I turned up my collar.

(2) The niiiht was dark, novcrthe- (2) The night was dark; neverthe-

she was not afraid. less she was not afraid.

(3) I was tired, accordingly I sat (3) I was tired; accordingly I sat

down. down.

1 H< 1,< .ad her cry, then he ran (4) He heard her cry; then he ran to her aid. to her aid. In M-ntcnre four above, the comma would suffice before then if inittcd in the second part ; for the second part would thm be. not an additional complete clause without a conjunc- tion, but merely the second part of a compound predicate. * Compare Section 78. 132 VOCATIONAL FA'dLISH It should be added that, though punctuation with the semi- colon, as in the right-hand column, corrects the errors, it is often best to rewrite sentences of this kind in such a way that they are made complex instead of compound, because it is possible to express the true relations between the parts more accurately and gracefully in complex sentences. Thus the following versions are better than the corresponding sen- it IK <> in the right-hand column on page 131.

1. It was so cold that I turned up my collar.
2. Though the ni^ht \v:is dark, she \v;is not afraid.
3. I was so tired that I sat down to r< 98. Between Word Groups Broken by Commas. Often a .-entence consists of two or more main parts which are thcm- >elves broken up into smaller parts by commas. In such a
it is obviously desirable to distinguish between the smaller
word groups and the larger ones; and the semicolon, as the
mark intermediate between the comma and the period, is
used to set apart the larger groups. In other words, a series
of phrases or clauses of any kind are usually separated by
semicolons if any of the members must be broken up by commas.

MPLF. : If I could save the Union without frooinir any slave, I
would do it; and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves. I would
do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others ai< me. I would also do that. Lincoln The same principle is at the basis of the rule, frequently given, that e. g., i. e., namely, and viz., before a list, are usually preceded by a semicolon. The words after such a semicolon are separated by commas. EXAMPLE: I have three reasons for not going; namely, lack of funds, poor health, and important work. EXERCISE 47 Punctuate the following sentences : 1. We are not slow in our shipments on the contrary we are unusually prompt. 2. The day is cold and dark and dreary It rains and the wind is never weary. Longfellow PrxrTTATION 133 3. He knew the worst would happen he tried to meet it bravely. 1. I Ie knew the worst would happen and he tried to meet it bravely. ">. He had fled as f;ir as he could go accordingly he tried to build up his
courage to face the other way.

6. He knew he should not take the money nevertheless when he fouiu 1 1 he

roll in his pocket he lacked the courage to return it.

7. He thought of what his mother would say then there was another who

might not understand.

8. He reasoned that he ought not to take a chance still men had risked

all and won.

9. The moral side did not impress Tom indeed it may be questioned

whether morals ever concerned him.

10. He had lost his reputation anyway so what was the difference?

11. Xo men living are more worthy to be trusted than those who toil up

from poverty none less inclined to take or touch aught which they

have not earned. Lincoln

\'2. Hi; hope. 1 to join Miller at South Bend there would be sufficient time.

13. He thought the case over between trains "Will it pay?" he asked

himself.

1 4. \Yith malice toward none with charity for all with firmness in the right

as God gives us to see the right let us strive to finish the work we are
in to bind up the nation's wounds to care for him who shall have
borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan to do all which
may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves
and with all nations. Lincoln

USES OF THE COLON

99. The Colon. The colon (:) was formerly used as a
mark intermediate between the semicolon and the period.

KPLX: It is sown in dishonor; it is raised in glory: it is sown in
ikni's*: it is raised in pov. / Corinth

have a scries of four clauses without any conjunction-.

The < ,nd clause is clearly more closely related to the first than it is to the third; that i>, the first two clauses make up a

need pair and the third and fourth ;i similarly balanced

The col,n M-parates the pairs. Such UM- of the

generally abandoned at present. The

lid n.\v 1 iiher comma- and a semicolon,

, ,!.

134 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

\

The main uses of the colon at present are: (a) to precede a
list of particulars that is formally introduced; (b) to precede
an extract or quotation of considerable length; and (c) some-
times to precede an illustration or an explanation of a com-
plete statement that has been given.

EXAMPLES:

(a) He took with him the following articles : a camera, a telescope,

and two rifles. (Notice that the colon is not needed if the
list is introduced less formally; e. g., He took with him a
camera, a telescope, and two rifles.)

(b) The Reverend Mr. Smith said: (Then follows a long quotation.)

(c) His tongue, indeed, was a magic instrument: sometimes it

rumbled like the thunder; sometimes it warbled like the
sweetest music. (Notice that the last two clauses develop
or explain the first one.)

Examine the following sentence carefully:

Our young men in the cities are living too rapidly: ot fifteen, when
they should be abashed before girls, they are social lions; at twenty,
when they should yet believe in the rewards of virtue, they have
adopted the theory of success by "pull"; at thirty they are pre-
maturely cynical.

Notice that we have four main clauses, but they are not of
equal value. The last three are given for the purpose of ex-
plaining and illustrating the first one. A colon follows the
first clause; semicolons separate the others. The relation of
the first clause to the other three is very much like that of a
father to his three sons.

The colon has also various purely conventional uses, of
which the most important are as follows:

1. After the salutation in a letter.

EXAMPLE : Dear Sir :

2. Between chapter and verse in Scripture references.
EXAMPLE: Matt. 4: 8-16.

3. In indicating time.
EXAMPLE : 4 :35 p.m.

PUNCTUATION 135

EXERCISE 48

Punctuate the following:

1. The spirit of the American people is little understood abroad Europeans
generally believe that we put the dollar above morals and happiness
or even mercy they believe that American demeanor while brilliant
in ingenuity is uncomfortably tricky.

J. The lawyer lectured on the following topics transfer of interests in lands
cont le conveyances wills descent to heirs landlord and tenant

the lease defects and repairs subletting rent remedies for non-payment
termination of the lease.

3. There are three simple tenses present past and future in English.

4. Kindly send us the following goods three copies of Lamb's Tales from

Shakspere twelve copies of Ivanhoe one copy of Silas Marner.
"-. Alphabets ancient Egyptian early Phoenician Greek Chinese English.
t>. Matthew 68. 7 30 a.m. My dear Jones

USES OF THE DASH

100. For Sudden Breaks or Interruptions. We have seen
(Section 91) how slight interruptions of the forward movement
of the sentence are marked by commas. Sometimes there are
interruptions that cannot be called "slight," but which turn
the current of the sentence sharply away from its former
direction. For sudden breaks of this kind, as well as a few
other uses to be discussed in the next section, the dash ( ) has
been adopted as a useful mark. Proper uses of the dash may
best l>e indicated by examples.

(a) Abrupt change in construction, leaving the first part
of the sentence incomplete.

MPLE: I want to tell you but that wouldn't be fair.

(b) A break for the purpose of repeating or varying an
expression for emphasis.

A c :irc tired yes, more than tired of your delay.
Do we can we hope to succeed in such an undertaking

(<) An unexpected turn of thought. Ho was always anxious to pay fas debts when he had no money. 136 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH The dash is also very much used to set off parenthetical expressions that are independent, both grammatically and in idea, of the main assertion; in other words, expressions that are decidedly more than "slight" interruptions of the course of the sentence. KXAMPLK: I wanted to tell you but I must not detain you long that I appreciate your careful work. 1 11 such sentences either dashes or marks of parenthesis () may be used, but dashes seem less formal and are now often pre- ferred to parentheses. 101. Other Uses of the Dash. The dash is a convenient mark to set oil a series of appositives that have to be separated from one another by commas. If commas were used to set off the whole scries, as well as between the items of the series, it might l>e difficult to distinguish the relations. Examine the
following .sentence:

He sold photographic chemicals, sulphite of soda, metol, and potassium
bromide.

.Just how many things did he sell? You will want to know
immediately whether the last three items in the list are, or are
not, photographic chemicals. If they are photographic chemi-
caU, the fact should be made clear by a dash, instead of a
-omina. after chemicals. If they are not photographic chemi-
cals, the comma is sufficient. Examine also the following
examples of this use of the dash :*

(1) He had to buy three books a geography, ;i history, and a grammar.

(2) Hingling Brothers displayed various animals of North America

buffaloes, mountain lions, panthers, lynxes, and antelopes.

Occasionally a single appositive may be set off by a dash
(or dashes) instead of a comma or commas, when there is a
feeling of unusual abruptness in turning to the explanation.

EXAMPLES: (1) He gave it to the boss Murphy.

(2) Efficiency that much overworked word is now
heard even in our churches.

'These are cases in which colons might also be used, according to Section 99.

PUNCTUATION 137

In a long sentence beginning with a series of phrases or
clauses and ending with a summarizing statement, a dash is
often used before the summarizing statement. The dash in this
use is comparable to the line one draws under a column of
figures preparatory to writing down the sum.

EXAMPLE: That he might enjoy health, that he should have enough
money for the necessities of life, that he might enjoy friends these
were the life desires of Stevenson.

A similar use may occur even in a short sentence.

EXAMPLE: Money, position, reputation all seemed worthless now.

There are also various mechanical uses of the dash which
may be illustrated as follows:

1. My friend B

2. "The rank is but the guinea's stamp." Burns

3. During the years 1914-18.

4. pp. 28-30.

."). May-July.

Notice that in 3, 4, and o a shorter mark, called technically
the tn-tlnxh, is used; the longer mark of 1 and 2 is the em-
ilnxti and is the one used ordinarily in sentences.

One caution as to the dash is important. It used to be
i rather extreme and sensational mark of punctua-
tion, because of the abruptness or suddenness that it implied,
and careful writers u-ed it sparingly. It lias, however, grown
in favor. and there is now no objection to it where it really serves
any of the purpose^ that have explained in this and the pre-
ceding section. Hut the dash is not an indiscriminate substitute
for the comma, the semicolon, or the colon, to be. used because
OIK- i- not Blire xactly which .f these other marks would lie

: it is a mark with distinctive characteristics of its own. and
the chief thing to remember about it is that it usually indi< 'nipt or sudden turn of sume kind, in thought or construc- tion. 138 VOCATIONAL KNdLISH Typewriters are not often equipped with both a hyphen and a dash; it is necessary to use the same character for these very different marks. In such a case stenographers should be care- ful to distinguish in some clear way. The hyphen, used between the parts of some compound words and at the end of the line when it is necessary to divide a word, should not be separated by any space from the preceding or following letters. But when the hyphen sign on a typewriter is to be interpreted as a dash, it must be separated from adjacent words by space both before and after it; or it may be struck twice to make it evident that a dash is meant. EXERCISE 49 Punctuate the following sentences: 1. The business of the administration should he in the hands of adminis- trative officers superintendent a. istant superintendents and principals. 2. I was not a fellow-being of these explorers I was a curiosity I was a specimen. Lou-ill 3. These discoveries gunpowder and the compass opened a new world to a new idea democracy. 4. If the president refuse which God forbid we shall be lost. fj. "I thought you came from Oxford," I returned. "Not 1" said Sn-er- forth "I have been seafaring better employed." "David Copperfield,'' Dickens 6. I was going by Tom's yesterday when but that's another story. 7. They are good they are bad they are weak they are strong \Yise foolish so am I. Sam Wait' 8 Say not Good Night but in some brighter clime Bid me Good Morning. Anna L. Barbauld 9. You will sell this toy the kind the children cry for Structo. 10. It has the Rotex shutter that's all you need to know. 11. He was always looking for work for his wife. (How does a dash after work affect the meaning?) 102. Classification by Punctuation. The four internal marks of punctuation that we have been discussing comma, semi- colon, colon, and dash can be used very effectively to show a PUNCTUATION 139 -malic arrangement of topics. Doubtless the following systems of classification are familiar to students: [corn (2) Products of Illinois cereal < wheat (a) cereal [oats 1. corn 2. wheat 3. oats Products (1) of Illinois mineral coal lead (b) mineral 1. coal 2. lead (c) dairy (milk 1. milk dairy < butter 2. butter [cheese 3. cheese Sometimes it is not convenient to take the space required by such tabulation. In such a case the relations may be indicated almost as effectively by punctuation as follows: (3) Products of Illinois: cereal corn, wheat, oats; mineral coal, lead; dairy milk, butter, cheese. It is worth while to study this arrangement carefully and note the uses that are illustrated. The colon after Illinois is a colon preceding a list. The dashes after cereal, mineral, and dairy are dashes preceding groups of appositives, or subordinate list s. Colons in place of the dashes would be confusing because of the colon preceding the main list. The commas separate words in a series. The semicolons separate groups of words that are subdivided by commas. USES OF PARENTHESES 103. For Parenthetical Expressions. The parenthetical ex- kind of f/.W<- in writing, a statement not directly in the current of thought. -n-i.i.: That fall Jeremiah Courtney (he lias since died) enter- tained all the country-side. iitli-tii-;d ' M are oftm enclosed by dashes (Section 100 or by OOmmafl Section IM). Such use of commas i 10 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH is mainly confined to short expressions not far out of the course of thought. The choice between dashes and parentheses for longer and more marked interruptions is largely a matter of personal taste. Appositives and other bits of explanation a in- frequently set off by parentheses, as for example the references to sections in this book. Note also the following uses: (1) In one of your letters (May 24, 1911) you state .... (2) The Tussock larva (caterpillar) is about an inch and a ha)- long. (3) The rifle (the one father told you about last night) has been in our family for a hundred years. Parentheses are also used to enclose figures or letters in an enumeration of items run into a text. EXAMPLE: There are two main reasons for this condition: (a) his l>overty, (b) his youth.

Note that no other mark of punctuation follows the enclosed
letter or figure.

Pupils are sometimes told to enclose in parentheses words
that they wish to cancel. This is an entirely wronu; practice,
however, and likely to mislead the reader. Parentheses have

no cancelinii power.

USES OF BRACKETS

104. Used Mainly in Printing. Brackets, which are right-
angled [] as distinguished from the curved parentheses, are
not common except in technical work, and are more likely to
le seen in printing than in writing. The main uses of brackets
are as follows:

(1) To enclose an explanation or note, as by an editor.

(2) To set off words inserted in a quotation for the purpose
of explaining something that is not clear from the quotation
alone, or for the purpose of correcting an error.

(3) To enclose a parenthesis within a parenthesis. For this
purpose, however, parentheses within dashes may also be used.

PUNCTUATION 141

Such an involved construction is awkward and should generally
be avoided.

EXAMPLES:

(1) "I was assisted in my work by Frederick Aiken, whose service
was very much appreciated." [Mr. Aiken represented

The Sun in Mexico during the occupation of Veru (Yu/..
The Editor.}

(2) "He [the President] asserted that such action was [unjneces-

sary."

Brackets are like parentheses in having no canceling power.

USES OF QUOTATION MARKS

105. Direct Quotation. When the exact words of a eharac-
ter in a story, or of any person other than the writer of the
particular composition in hand, are run into the text, they
should begin and end with quotation marks (" ").

BSXAMPl

(1) "Do you expect me to go alone?" she said to Maloney.

(2) We must agree with the immortal words of Keals, "A thing

of beauty is a joy forever."

If a direct quotation continues through more than one
paragraph, it is customary to place a quotation mark at the
beginning of each paragraph, so that the eye will the more
readily rerogni/e that the quotation continues; but the quota-
tion mark for the end does iml occur until the whole quotation
ends.

Notic<- that the abbreviation etc., to indicate that only part of .'i Ifi quoted, belongs outside the quotation mark-. (Incorrect) '. i the familiar prov He quoted tlie familiar proverb, "A p.: "A rolling stone," violation should be carefully di>tiiiguished from

!!. Indirect quotation merely slates the sub-

<-e of a n-Muirk, without giving his ' word-, and i- not endowed in quotation marks. Thu< the 142 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH first example in this section may be changed to indirect quota- tion as follows: She asked Maloney if he expected her to go alone. A quotation within a quotation is usually indicated by single marks (' '). If still another quotation occurs within the inner quotation, the double marks are used again. Cases like this last are rare and awkward, but the single marks for quotation within quotation are common. EXAMPLE : The speaker continued : "Burns's poetry is as applicable today as it was a century ago. 'A man's a man for a' that' preaches the always needed gospel of democracy." In printing, an extract that is set off by itself in different type from that of the body of the text is usually not put in quotation marks. This book contains many examples of this practice. 106. Other Uses of Quotation Marks. Among various special uses of quotation marks the following are worth illustration: (a) To enclose titles of books, articles, poems, pictures and other works of art. EXAMPLES: (1) Dickens's "A Tale of Two Cities." (2) Hall's article in the Atlantic Monthly on "Kitch- ener's Mob." (3) Keats's "Ode to a Nightingale." (4) Rubens's "Descent from the Cross." In printed matter, however, the titles of books often occur in italics, unquoted; and therefore in manuscript they may be underlined and unquoted. Notice that the authors' or artists' names are not part of the quotation. Students are often careless in failing to put within the quotation an article that belongs at the beginning e. g., the A at the beginning of "A Tale of Two Cities" in example (1) above. Anything that is quoted at all should be quoted accurately. PUNCTUATION 143 (b) Unusual expressions of such a character that the writer wishes to indicate his recognition of the fact that they do not belong to the standard English vocabulary are put in quota- tion marks. Slang, technical words, words used ironically or in some special sense, are included in this class. EXAMPLES: (1) His clothes were somewhat "ratty." (2) He vfas elected "master of the rolls." (c) Names of ships, trains, etc., are often quoted; or they may be printed in italics. EXAMPLES: The "Oriental Limited" makes connection with "The Empress of Japan" at Seattle. The Oriental Limited makes connection with The Empress of Japan at Seattle. (d) Words or phrases to which particular attention is directed, as for the purpose of definition or because they are spoken of as words merely, may be either quoted or printed in italics (as often in this book). EXAMPLES: The word "sanguine" is related to "sanguinary," but differs much from it in meaning. The word sanguine is related to sanguinary, but differs much from it in meaning. There is some reason for holding to the use of quotation marks for what is actually quoted, and using italics mainly for emph 107. Other Marks in Connection with Quotations. The position of other punctuation marks in relation to the quota- tion marks at the end of quotations often causes trouble, but can \>c simplified under two general rules:

(a) A period, or a comma, always precedes the quotation
mark at the end of a quotation.

\MI-LES: (1) "All. AgDtt," I s.-iid, "I have always known it."
(2) "I cannot," he said, "go this month."

This rule is probably due largely to considerations of appear-

144 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

(b) Other marks semicolon, colon, exclamation mark,
question mark, dash, etc. go outside the quotation unless they
plainly belong to the quoted words.

EXAMPLES:

(1) The following instruction is given under the head of "Business

Correspondence": When a firm is the addressee, the salu-
tatory phrase should be "Gentlemen:" or "Dear Sire:"
"A Manual for Writers," Manly and Powell

(2) "Good!" he cried.

(3) Do you know the name of the author of "The Solitary

Reaper"?

USES OF THE PERIOD

108. Special Uses. The ordinary use of the period at the

end of declarative and imperative sentences has been mentioned

lion 86) as being too well known to require special attention.

(a) A period is also used after all abbreviations.

I. \\.MTI.I-: Mr. etc. e.g. pp. A.D.

Formerly a period was used after Roman numerals, but this
practice is now generally abandoned.

KxAMi'i.i s: Vol. IV When Charles II was King of Knglaim

(b) A row of dots or periods, technically called <7///w,s. indicates omission of a portion of a quotation that is not essen- tial to one's purpose in quoting. In a prose passage four dots are most commonly used, but when a whole line or more is omitted from a poetical quotation a line of dots is usually made. EXAMPLES: "In the height of his good humor .... he found his pocket was picked." Addistm "Breathes there the man, with soul so dead, Who never to himself hath said, This is my own, my native land! If such there breathe, go, mark him well." USES OF THE EXCLAMATION MARK 109. The Exclamation Mark (!) is used after exclamatory sentences ; after imperative sentences by which it is intended to PUNCTUATION 145 express a particularly strong or urgent command; often after interjections; and sometimes to indicate irony. K\ VMPLES: (1) What :i piece of work is a man! Shaksperc (2) Hurry! hurry! hurry! (3) Alas! I found that he was gone. (4) Brutus is an honorable man ! Shakspcre USES OF THE QUESTION MARK 110. The Question Mark has only two common uses: (a) At the end of a direct question (but not an indirect Question). EXAMPLES: (Question mark) (No question mark) (1) Are you angry? (1) He asked me whether I was angry. J) Where does your brother live? (2) He asked me where my brother lives. (h) To express a doubt. EXAMPLE: He says he is a member of a noble (?) English family. is rare and generally undesirable. EXERCISE 5O Punctuate the following wherever necessary. 1. Through the influence of his father he got the job. J. The army moved forward rapidly having previously mapped the country. i he army moved forward rapidly over a previously mapped country. ; i-:. N>. '2 will require a comma. No. 3 will not. In No. 12 the
participial phr.'tse is equivalent to a clause; i. p., the sentence, while
it must he called simple, is in effect complex, being almost, equiva-
lent to the complex sentence, "The army moved forward rapidly,
for the country had been previously mapped.")

I. That that that is not is not.

.">. Kvery one loved Agnes for she had the rare virtue of loving every one.

i. r.very one lov 'i had a way of friendship with acquair'

and Mr..' nd poor.

f the minutes and the hours will care for themseh

v i- r came out of one door in others out of the

otL. out for clauses with "understood" woi

9. All p ' April 1 will benefit by the rate**

146 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

10. The man who makes no mistakes never makes anything else.

11. The clerk who was late :il\v:iys had to pay a fine.

12. The clerk who was late explained that a wreck had delayed her car.

13. Intelligent care should be given children who have bad colds most

dise: ses start that way.
1!. fa) Mr. Jones of Buffalo is visiting here this week.

(b) Mr. Jones of Buffalo [not the Detroit man] is visit in"; hero this
week.

15. Charles Carroll of Carrollton wrote our Revolutionary patriot in

reply to the statement that since there were other Charles Carrolls
the king would not know which to hang.

16. There are several primary requirements for a military officer first he

must be a man of commanding appearance second he must under-
stand the wants of men third he must be well educated.

17. In your letter June 16 you- ask a for information b for instruction.

Have you our new instruction sheet Bulletin No. 3? You will find
instruction therein enough to keep you busy a week.

18. How can he expect me to bring the books he asked Harry when I

can't even get into the house.
10. Woman without her man would be a savage.

20. The schoolmaster says the mayor is a donkey.

21. A horse a horse my kingdom for a horse. Richard Hi
L'J. But she is in her grave and oh

The difference to me. Wordworth

23. How are the mighty fallen. II Sonmt-l

EXERCISE 51

Punctuate the following sentences:

1. The voices of the Present say come

But the voices of the Past say wait Longfellmr

2. Quoth David to Daniel Why is it these scholars

Abuse one another whenever they speak
Quoth Daniel to David It naturally f oilers

' Folks come to hard words if they meddle with Greek Saxe

3. One reason why I'm now so scared

Pardon the weakness pray
Is that I'm thinking all the while
Of me what will they say

4. O earth so full of dreary noises

O men with wailing in your voices

O delved gold the wailers heap
O strife O curse that o'er it fall
God strikes a silence through you all

And giveth His beloved sleep Mrs. Browning

PUNCTUATION 147

5. At this critical moment a fresh comely woman pressed through the
throng to get a peep at the gray bearded man. She had a chubby
child in her arms which frightened at his looks began to cry. Hush
Rip cried she hush you little fool the old man won't hurt you.

The name of the child the air of the mother the tone of her voice all
awakened a train of recollections in his mind. What is your name
my good woman asked he.

Judith Gardenier.

And your father's name

Ah poor man Rip Van Winkle was his name but it's twenty years since
he went away from home with his gun and never has been heard of
since his dog came home without him but whether he shot himsdf
or was carried away by the Indians nobody can tell. I was then
but a little girl.

Rip had but one question more to ask and he put it with a faltering
voice.

Where's your mother

Oh she too had died but a short time since she broke a blood vessel in a
fit of passion at a New England peddler.

EXERCISE 52

Punctuate the following passages, giving reasons :

1. There is one great amalgamating principle influencing Jew and Gentile

Catholic and Protestant Christian and Mohammedan the Golden
Rule Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.

2. There is a deal of vile nonsense talked upon both sides of the matter

tearing divines reducing life to the dimensions of a mere funeral pro-
cession so short as to be hardly decent and melancholy unbelievers
yearning for the tomb as if it were a world too far away. Stevenson
:;. Hoy worth looked at the load sadly suddenly as if he feared to test his
resolution he began unloading overcoat extra shoes extra underwear
until at l:u-t were left one suit of underwear one wool shirt one pair of
socks these to last him three months
4. The angels not half so happy in heaven
Went envying her and me

the reason as all men know
In this kingdom by the sea
That the wind came out of the cloud by night

Chilling and killing my Annabel Lee. "Annabel Lee," Poe

:,. I.- - il-lender money in payment of private debts consists of any gold

ruin silver dollars I'm' /reenbacks") ami Tinted

:easury n- -' amount fraetioii.il silver coins to the

int of ten dollars nick*-! and copper coins to the amount of

148 VOCATIONAL KXCLISH

twenty-five cents gold and silver certificates :iml national bank notes
are not legal-tender money but are ordinarily received in payment
of debts without objection Huff cut

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTEE VIII

1. What do you understand by word jrroups within a sentence'.'
'_'. What are the three marks of punctuation used to indicate <; of separation? 3. Why is it necessary to separate words in seri' \. Why is it, proper to use a comma in addition to and near the end rieB? 5. Why should an "eddy" or a parenthetical word irroup be set olf by punctuation? '). What is meant, by restrictive and non-restrictive expre- lllustrate. Which are set off by commas? 7. Are all appositives set apart by punctuation? Explain. 8. Explain this statement: A comma plus a conjunction equals a semicolon? '.. How many uses of the dash are listed in the text? 10. What marl. 1. and in what order, for purposes of fic.-itional tabulation? CHAPTER IX HOW WORDS ARE MADE 111. Word Families. Throughout our lives we are learn- ing new words we must if we would keep pace with the, times. The broader the vocabulary of which we are masters, the better fitted we shall be for opportunities that arise. In increasing our knowledge of words, we shall be greatly aided by remember- ing that they, like people, are often associated in families. When one nueets a stranger named Brown in a foreign city he is ordinarily not much impressed. However, if he learns that t he man is a brother of his neighbor Brown at home, his interest is at once aroused. When one sees in the word petroleum the same root (petro, rock) that he meets in salt petre (potassium nitrate, used in the manufacture of gunpowder) and in petrify, the relationship makes an impression, which is again made much deeper when he meets petrography (graphy, to write), the art of writing on stone, or petrary, an ancient war engine for hurling stones. He may continue if he wishes and learn that the given name Peter means rock, and that the stormy petrel was so named because it was believed that it can walk upon the sea as did the Apostle Peter. It is interesting to note changes in meaning within a family of words. Most people know that sanguine means hopeful, ardent, confident : the root syllable sang means blood, and the wrd nets its meaning from the optimism of full-blooded, healthy people. But on the other hand, sanguinary means bloody, murderous, cruel; wimj-froirf (froid is related to frujitl \ 08 coolness, indifference, freedom from excitement; and relationship by blood. It is, <.f course, not possible to analyze and associate all thr word- in the language. Many of the mom common words return- no analysis, and ,-ome arc not formed along logical lines. However, ihe rootfl of many of our words, derivatives from tl and ( rreek, may be .! iii do/en-.- of different com- II'.' 150 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH binations, and thus the learning of many words may depend upon knowing the meaning of one syllable. 112. Plan of the Following Exercises. It is not desirable in this small book to analyze completely a great multitude of words. Scierttific analysis of our vocabulary belongs to the field of philology, a difficult science; but a knowledge of some of the more common word elements will be useful. The follow- ing series of exercises is intended to give the student some skill in guessing at the meaning of strange words through a knowl- edge of the principal roots in common use, thereby making him less dependent on the dictionary and at the same time giving him considerable increase in reading power. EXERCISE 53 Bring to class two words employing each of the common prefixes listed below. Be able to define the words. 1. a - ab - abs, away from. 22. mis, bad, ill. 2. ad l, to.. 23. mono, one. 3. ante, before. 24. non 1, not. 4. anti, against. 25. ob l, against. 5. bi, twice. 26. omni, nil. 6. cata, down. 27. per, through. 7. circum, around. 28. peri, around. 8. contro - contra, against. 29. poly, many. 9. co - con 1, with. 30. post, after. 10. de - di, down, away. 31. pre, before. 11. dia, thru. 32. pro, forward, for. 12. dis 1, apart. 33. re - red, again, back. 13. epi, upon. 34. retro, backward. 14. e - ex l, out, forth. 35. se - sed, away from. 15. eu, good. 36. semi, half. 16. extra, beyond. 37. sub 1, under. 17. in - en, in, into. 38. super, over. 18. in - un l, not, contrary to. 39. syn, with, up. 19. inter, between. 40. trans, across. 20. intra - intro, among. 41. ultra, beyond. 21. mal, bad. 42. uni, one. For ease of pronunciation, the last letter of a prefix often changes either to the first letter of the root syllable (thus in-legible bocomes illegible) or to a letter easily pro- nounced with the next syllable (thus in-possible becomes impossible). In this manner the prefix con, for example, may become com, co, cog, cor, col; and other prefixes are varied in like manner. HOW AYOKDS ARK M'ADK 151 EXERCISE 54 Bring to class two words employing each of the common suffixes listed In-low. 1 Be able to define the words. 1. able (ible). lf>. /oW.

29. kin.

2. al (eal, ial).

16. /er,

open

15. chron,

time

iia,

water

16. cor (d),

heart

(er,

star

17. cor on,

crown

id,

hear

18. corp,

body

7. aur,

gold

19. cred,

believe

'ne,

good

20. curr,

run

9. brev,

short

21. demo,

people

10. cap (it),

head

22. tltnt,

tooth

flesh

23. dirt

say

. cess,

give, move

24. dun,

master

nnpOMtblc to give the moaning* of these nuffixos afl the. meaning* of tho ;
have been ^ his reaaon .- BO0Dtrmto the aUentiOQ

oo the rooU and the prefixes.

152

VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

EXERCISE 66

25. dorm,

sleep

38. gram,

letter

26. due (0,

lead

39. graph,

write

27. fac,

face

40. gnil,

favor

28. fact, fie,

make

41. hydro,

water

29. fer,

carry, bear

42..

cast

30. fid,

faith

43. jud(ic},

law

31. fin,

end

44. jnnrt,

join

fluo,

flow

45. jur,

law

rag, fract,

break

46. krat, crat,

rule

31. /'/(/(t),

flee

47.. lat,

carry

35. (/e,

earth

48. linyu,

tongue

Ten,

birth

49. Zi'ter,

letter

37. grad, great,

step

50. lith,

stone

EXERCISE 67

.">!. Inc,

place

63. mint.

advin

.")2. loqu,

speak

(I. untnn,

one, alone

">:;. mtigna,

large

i."). uiort,

death

~}\. tun nit,

hand

(id. mot, mob,

move

nier,

sea

>7. tioni(en),

5i. water,

mother

68. nund,

announce

57. ?//

measure

O'.t. i-r///,

eye

i ///,

mind

70. jmrt,

divide

5<). mere, pay 71. pn/rr, father i<). meter, measure 72. ped, foot til. //. iihittn.

light

89. ty'/<>\

complain

77. pip, pict,

paint

( .M). r/;/ /-, gutr,

aak

78. pZoc,

please

91. quiesc,

(juiet, rest

79. pZen,

full

92. ra//,

root

80. pZic,

ply, fold

93. radi,

ray

81. polis,

city, citadel

94. re#, red,

rule

82. port,

carry

95. rupt,

break

83. port,

gate

96. sacr,

holy

84. posiJ, pose,

place

97. saZ,

salt

85. poten/,

powerful

98. sanct,

holy

86. prim,

first

99. sa(0,

enough

87. pund,

point

100. scend,

climb

HOW WORDS ARE MADE

153

EXERCISE 59

101. 80,

know

ript.

write

103. secut, sequ,

follow

104. sen,

old

10.').

feel

m\. .ist.

stand

1(>7.

alone

108. sped, spic,

see

109. spir.

breathe

110. stell.

star

111. struct,

build

111*, surg,

rise

113. tang, tact.

touch

Hi. teg, tect,

cover

Ho. tel,

far

116. temp,

117. tens, tent,

118. terra,

119. tors, tort,

120. typ,

121. vad,

122. ven(f),

123. ver,

124. vert,

125. end, ins,

126. viv,

127. voc,

128. volo,

129. w>Z

time

stretch

earth

twist

stamp

walk

come

true

turn

see

live

call

desire

roll

EXERCISE 6O

What do the words mean in the following series of exercises
6 1 inclusive)? Do not use the dictionary, but refer to the
list s of roots on the preceding pages. Your problem is to arrive
at a meaning for each word through the syllables.

primeval
prima facie
punctuate
punctilious
pedal
pedometer
linguistic
minify
icnt
fidelity
Genesis

defio

emigration

tneot

mensuration
men;

commensurate

abrupt

interruption

eruption

Sacramento

sacrifice

sacrilegious

stellar

constellation

stelliform

migration

immigration

capital

itate
caption
maritime

portal
porUt

port

portico

deportment

potential

potentate

impotent

incredible

creed

credit

cordial

cordate

manual

amanuensis

manipulate

jurisdiction

adjudicate

judiciary

factory

nile
defacU

154

VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

fluent

superfluous

confluence

torture

terra firma

Mediterranean

terrestrial

local

locomotive

in loco parentis

conjunction

juncture

adjunct

plenty

plenipotentiary

replenish

enunciate

announce

pronounce

radish

telescope

telemeter

telephone

query

inquiry

verify

Vera Cruz

veritable

science

prescience

omniscient

manuscript

prescribe

proscribe

scripture

circumscribe

sensation

sensitive

senile

senate

senescent

EXERCISE 61

radical

carnivorous

eradicate

incarnate

placate

exsanguinated

implacable

versimilitude

placid

temporize

revolve

democracy

involve

epidemic

involution

demography

radiate

tensile

radius

tent

radiograph

tension

primitive

integument

primordial

protect

primogeniture

sanctuary

tortuous

sanctify

retort

sanction

quadruped

salt

quadrennial

saline

quadrilateral

tern pus fugit

carnal

temporal

EXERCISE 62

regular

contact

correct

convene

rectify

advent

convert

prevent

revert

evade

versatile

pervacje

vertebrae

invade

vivacious

quiet

vivisection (sect - cut)

quiescent

revise

requiem

vocation

requiescat in

vocal

pace

revoke

consecutive

supervise

sequacious

visit

sequel

viz. (videlicit; the z

satisfy

is from an old char-

insatiable

acter used as a sign

satiated

of abbreviation)

resist

tangent

consist

intangible

insistent

HOW WORDS ARE MADE

155

EXERCISE 63

solitude

euphony

depict

sole

nominate

picture

eolo

nominal

oculist

inspiration

nomenclature

occult

spiracle

monitory

binocular

respire

admonish

metrical

spectator

premonition

meter

spectacle

paternal

comptometer

conspicuous

patriotism

mortal

surging

expatriate

mortgage

resurgent

matricide

post mortem

resurrect

maternal

loquacious

deduce

matrix

elocution

ductile

propel

eloquent

induction

dispel

transfer

education

impel

defer

partition

penitentiary

fragile

particle

penance

fracture

phonic

penal

fraction

phonograph

pigment

sense

EXERCISE 64

project

coronet

benefactor

trajectory

dictionary

animated

projectile

indict

introspect

literary

dictaphone

epidermis

illiterate

dormant

malefactor

lithograph

dormitory

polygamy

monolith

dormer (window)

misled

transmit

dominion

secession

missionary

domino

retroactive

missile

corpse

synthesis

nial

Corpus Christi

analysis

century

incorporate

cataclysm

rf-ntipede

asteroid

cataract

annual

astronomy

dispel

per annum

asterisk

ultra-conservative

A.I) mm) domini)

dentate

superheated

dentist

interurban

accelerate

indent

eulogy

corona

chronometer

circumnavigate

coroner

chronology

visible

156 VOCATIONAL KNOLISIF

113. The Use of the Dictionary. The foregoing exercise?
should not give the student the impression that he can get along
without the dictionary. On the contrary, he will often need
to verify his guessing, and he will profit by much study of the
dictionary. But there are wrong ways to use the dictionary
even when the searcher is diligent. The best possible use is
that which will make further reference less necessary. The
mere act of looking up a word is very often unprofitable.

A little study of a word, however, will almost always yield
a, rich return. The pupil should, first of all, look for the origin
of the word. Next he should examine other words before and
after to see if there are others from the same root, and last he
should note carefully the meaning of the word, the meanings
of words of the same family, and the use of these words in tin-
illustrative sentences given. As he closes the dictionary he
>hould form a little unspoken -cntrnce or sentence element
employing his newly acquired knowledge. This entire pro<-< will hardly increase the time required to examine a word by ten per cent, but it will generally increase his power to use the word by several hundred per cent. For example, suppose the word is salvage. In Web- Internaliondl Dictionary (quoted only in part), he will find the following: salvage, (Lhtinj salvare, see save) 1. The act of saving a vessel, goods, or life from perils of the sea. Near the word salvage are these words: salvable capable of being saved. salvability quality of being salvable. salvation the act of saving; deliverance from destruction. salvatory a place where things are preserved. salve (sal've) hail (God save you). There are several other words from this root, not to mention save and safe. After the pupil has given a few seconds to the study of this group of words, he will probably be able to work out the meaning of the legal phrase salvo jure (jure law, jury), HOW WORDS ARE MADE 157 the right of being safe, without further use of the dictionary. Few people know the good things to be found in the diction- ary. Frequently people go to the trouble of writing questions to magazines and newspapers which could easily be answered by reference 4 to any good dictionary. EXERCISE 65 I'sing an unabridged dictionary only, answer the following questions: 1. Who was Arachne (fiction)? Barkis ("Barkis is willm' ")? 2. What is the population of Rutland, Vermont? What and where is Cremona? Tara? 4. Who was Jane CJroy? What do you know about her? .">. I low do y<>u pronounce Zahadaias? (From the Bible.)

6. How do you pronounce Pisistratus? (Greek history.)

7. What is the meaning of the name Richard? Of Huldah?

s. What is the meaning of ad interim? Of Honi soil qui mat y pense?
9. Of what is F. R. C. P. E. an abbreviation?

EXERCISE 66

It is not uncommon to find st IK lent s who cannot alphabetize
with accuracy. This exercise is to correct that fault.

Bring to class slips of paper about one inch by two inches.
From a list of the members of the class which the teacher
>hould have on the board, copy one name on each slip, in the
order of the names on the board. At a signal begin to arrange
the surnames in alphabetical order. An error in the spelling
f a name will disqualify a contestant.

Prepare thirty slips and on each copy a word from a single
of a dictionary. Shake the slips vigorously and then
alphabetize them.

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER IX

1.1: umes come mit of the words which can l>e ana-

woid formation an aid to sjK-llm^'.'
niiid ' word which you need

158 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

4. Can you explain how in-legal became illegal? How in-pious became
impioit*.'

5. What is the most profitable method of using the dictionary?

6. How do some men gain mastery over a great vocabulary?

CHAPTER X

CAPITALIZATION AND SPELLING

114. Rules for Capitalization. Pupils entering high schools
assumed to be familiar with the main rules as to the use

of capitals that a sentence must begin with a capital, for
nple: that within a sentence proper nouns and proper

adjectives begin with capitals, etc. For review and reference,

however, the more important rules of capitalization are summed

up below.

1. Capitalize the first word of every sentence. But do not
capitalize the first word after a semicolon. The first word
after a colon, however, is capitalized if a complete sentence or
series of sentences follows, and if the colon accompanies, or is
equivalent to, some such expression as as follows.

MPLE: My reasons wore these: The road was badly paved; my
car was light and not in good repair; there was a better road a few
miles to the south.

2. Capitalize the first word of every line of poetry.

3. Capitalize the first word of every direct quotation that
consists of one or more sentences and is formally introduced.

MPLK: We very distinctly heard the doctor say, "You are unfair."

But do not capitalize a quoted word, phrase, or dependent
clause that is worked closely into the structure of a sentence.

s: Abigail thought it was a good "idear."

They learned that "honesty is the best policy."

1. In the statement of formal resolutions or propositions
for debate, capitalize the first word after Resolved or Whereas.

.:I-I.K: Ke.-olvi-d, Tli:it the American government should t:ike
steps to acquire ownership of the coal lands.

5. Capital i/e 7 and O when they are used as words. But
oh, unless at the beirinniim .f a sentence, i^ not capitalized.

159

160 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

6. Capitalize proper nouns and adjectives derived from them.
EXAMPLES: America, American; Elizabeth, Elizabethan.

This rule seems very simple and is generally understood; but
practical difficulties often arise as to just what words are proper
nouns, and which words require capitals in proper names con-
sisting of two or more words. Attention is therefore called to
the following specific cases:

(a) Capitalize all names for the Supreme Being; for the
Bible and other sacred books and for the books of the Bible;
for church functions.

K\ AMPLES: The Almighty, the Savior; the Scriptures; Easter.

(b) Capitalize the names of the days and the months, but
not of the seasons.

KxAMi'i i:s: Thursday, August, spring.

(c) Capitalize East, West, North, South, etc., when they
mean peoples or sections of the country, but not when they
mean directions points of the compass.

EXAMPLES: I have always lived in the West.

I saw a dark cloud coming from the west.

(d) Names of studies are not ordinarily capitalized, except
the proper names of languages.

K.\ AMPLES: arithmetic, Latin.

(e) The name.s of personified qualities or things or animals
are usually capitalized.

EXAMPLE : Thus Nature was his kind teacher.

(f) Capitalize le, la, de, du, in French names, when no
title or Christian name precedes them; but do not capitalize
them when a title or given name precedes.

EXAMPLES: De Bracy, Front de Boeuf.

(g) Always capitalize Van in Dutch names; never capitalize
von in German names.

EXAMPLES: Van Houghton, von Bismarck.

CAPITALIZATION AND SPELLING 161

It should be remembered, however, that one sometimes writes
his name in a manner contrary to the general rule. Anybody
addresMni;- such a person should be very careful to write the
name as ho writes it, regardless of the rule.

(h) Words that are primarily common nouns are often
capitalized when made parts of proper names. The distinc-
tions in usage brought out below should be very carefully
observed.
EXAMPLES:

A Chicago high school (not a proper name), but the Hyde Park

Ili.^h School (the name of a particular school).
Pennsylvania mountains (not a proper naine), but the Allegheny

Mountains.

An Illinois canal, but the Illinois-Michigan Canal.
A party of scouts, hut the Boy Scouts (name of an organization).

(i) Capitalize the first word and all the longer and more
important words in titles of books, pictures, etc. This means
that usually nouns, adjectives (but not articles except at the

nning), pronouns, verbs, and adverbs are capitalized; but
not prepositions or conjunctions unless they are very long. 1

EXAMPLES: Tho Mark of the Beast
Life's Little Ironies
As You Like It
Prue and I

7. As a general rule, capitalize the abbreviations of proper
names; do not capitalize abbreviations of words that would
not be capitalized.

: Illinois 111.; Principal (as a title) Prin.; quart qt.;

(.indie-power c.p.

There are some special cases, however. Thus abbreviation-
of titles arc regularly capitalized even if the title may be used
as a common noun.

KXAMI-LK. Ph. I).; but "He is a doctor of philosophy."'

rg it haa b< -nary in library catalogues and wit! to u*e capitals in th<- tnli-x :' hooka, except, of course, for the first \\ Wigga of the cabbage patch. 'A title in connection with a name, however, is capitalised; e. g., Doctor CovlUr. 162 VOCATIONAL ENCJL1SII Note also that the following abbreviations are capitalized, although the full forms employ small letters: P. O., post office; N. B., nota bene (note well); O. K., all' correct; P. M., post master; C. O. D., cash on delivery. In general, abbreviations should be sparingly used except in technical work in which it is sometimes desirable to use them for the purpose of saving space and time. In writing of any literary quality, abbreviations are hardly at all used, extvpt a few like etc., viz., i. e., e. g., a. m., p. m., A. D., B. C. Students will be wise to make very sure of the propriety of any use of abbreviations they are tempted to make, judging by the custom of the best authorities in the particular kind of writing they are doing. EXERCISE 07 Write the following, with whatever capitals are necessary: indi:m gods m. de la salle redeemer (deity) i.e. ii>h

van sycklc pt. pullmun

Illinois river f.o.b. south pole

mother p.p. russian empire

my mother pp. empire of russia

god e.g. the post office

autumn tex. a true democrat

in the south etc. englowood high school

\\ednesday co. high schools of chi'

"you win" he said b/s. forty-fourth st.

negro b/e. master of arts

last d:iys of pompeii o d (five hundred)

an ohio river acct. book IV

whereas our friend jr. yours truly

gypsy bbl. civilization

von moltke god's mammon

115. Division of Words. Years ago, at the "three R's"
period of education, spelling by syllable was very common.
It was not unusual for oral spellers to pronounce, then spell,
each syllable separately. The result is believed by some
people to have been much superior to that of our present
stress on written spelling. One thing evidently might be

CAPITALIZATION AND SPELLING 163

gained by the old method correct division of words into
syllables. Often children try to spell a word as a whole, with
the result that they omit or misspell one or two syllables.
Spelling by syllables has its advantages. Suppose the word
is transubstantiation. If the pupil will concern himself first with
Iran alone, he will not miss it; then comes sub, which is easy.
Syllable by syllable he will complete the word.

To determine syllables the dictionary is, of course, the best
authority and must often be consulted. A few general princi-
ples, however, will be helpful even though there are occasional
exceptions.

1. Prefixes and suffixes usually constitute distinct syllables.
See the lists of prefixes and suffixes in the preceding chapter,
Exercises 53 and 54.

2. When a consonant is doubled the syllabic division is
usually between the two letters. This rule sometimes accounts
for exceptions to number 1.

EXAMPLES: run-ning, hop-ping.

3. Any group of letters not easily and naturally pronounced
ther should not be made a syllable.

I.XAMPLES (wrong): Cat-holic, bac-kache, tob-acco.

One particularly common blunder in syllabication (a viola-
tion of both rule 1 and rule 3) consists in making a syllable of

n such words as attention, dissension, production, etc. The
final syllable in such words is pronounced as if spelled shun.
The- letters ion alone could not possibly account for such
pronunciation; the preceding t or s belongs to the final syllable,
which is (ton. or sion as the case may be. This applies to nearly
all words with these very common endings. But of course a
different principle applies to such a word as onion. It is pro-
nounced nn-i/uti; the syllables, therefore, are on-ion.

ther common error is treating ed as a distinct syllable
in words in which it is not a syllable. L//.W. fr exampl

-yllable and cainmt !. divided.

164 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

116. Dividing a Word at the End of a Line. Words should
never be divided at the ends of lines except between syllables.
This is an absolute rule and the violation of it makes a very
bad impression on any reader. It does not follow, however,
that any word may be divided between any two syllables. On
account of misunderstandings that may result, at least for a
moment, it is desirable to observe the following general instruc-
lions regarding the division of words between syllables:

1. Do not divide very short words. There is no need of
doing this and the result is awkward.

Kx AMIM.I.S (undesirable): H<- tri-l cv-ory door. Put down all the e - ven numbers. 2. Avoid division of surname-. MPI.K (undesirable): He turned the work over to Mr. Camp - hell. :*. Be sure that the first part of the divided word does not nive ;i wrong impression, or tend to cause mispronunciation. Thus in the first example below, the reader gets the idea of number ten and readjustment in the next line requires un- necessary labor; in the other examples the natural tendency, on seeing the first syllable alone, is to mispronounce. I :\ \MPLES (misleading): (1) The squid has ten - tacles about the mouth. (2) The green bananas would not rip - <-n. (3) As it was, there was no - thing to be done. (4) That in itself was her - itage enough. 1. Avoid all strange-looking syllables resulting from division, oven though the break is between syllables. EXAMPLES: hor-scs. ro:id:i-blc, unc-ven. Correct division of words is a matter of watchfulness as, indeed, is correct English generally. It is every writer's duty to present his ideas with as few distracting elements as possible. A reader will resent receiving a wrong impression, even though he may not be eorscious of the exact cause of his irritation. CAPITALIZATION AND SPELLING 165 EXERCISE 68 Where would you divide the following words? Before using a dictionary try breaking each word as you would if it came at the end of a line. gallant uttered analyzed business loving nation question strength lovely omission invention running pictures Passover diaphragm unhesitatingly union audible active knowledge 117. Compound Words. Our customs with regard to compound words are so inconsistent that general rules cannot _iven. The student will have to learn which words require the hyphen, which are run together without it, and which groups make two or more words. Pronunciation will often aid in determining the matter, but in many cases it will be necessary to consult the dictionary. The following observa- tions also will be of some help, even though there are unfor- tunately many exceptions to the general principles mentioned : 1. Short words that have been associated for a long time and are pronounced with a single effort and unequal stress are very commonly made one word, without a hyphen. EXAMPLES: sidewalk, sheepskin, honeymoon. 2. When two words that are combined receive equal em- phasis and separate pronunciation, the hyphen is likely to be used. I EXAMPLES: deaf-mute, cat's-paw. The general practice may be fairly well summed up a< follows: Compounds of common words like book, house, sh<>f>,
when the prefixed word is of one syllable, are not hyphen-
ated. When the preceding word consists of two syllables, the

hyphen When the preceding word consists of three

or more syllables, the two words are written separately.

EXAV ho|> tailnr-.-liop trie shop

room oolm--room operating room

While thi- i< a- valuable te-t it iim.-t be checked with the nary'- record of common fat there are in 166 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH exceptions. The following sections will deal with numerous specific examples of the different forms. 118. Words Sometimes Wrongly Combined. The follow- ing expressions consist of separate words and should not be used as single words or with the hyphen: every time in spite of no one on to per cent. some day all right (There is no such word as alright.) near by (Nearby and near-by are questionable forms.) 119. Words Written Without a Break. Each word in the groups listed below is one word, written without the hyphen: All combinations ending in self myself, yourself, themselves, etc. All combinations ending in body anybody, somebody, 1 nobody, etc. All combinations ending in thing anything, something, nothing, every- thing, etc. All combinations ending in ever whatever, whoever, wherever, whenever, etc. All combinations ending in where elsewhere, nowhere, somewhere, etc. The following words are not divided: almost inasmuch schoolboy already (Do not confuse inside (outside, onside, schoolmaster (but this with all [is] ready.) etc.) instead midnight moreover nevertheless nickname notwithstanding nowadays outstretch railroad rewrite although altogether always apiece biennial (triennial, etc.) childhood everlasting extraordinary farewell forthcoming school teacher) semicolon sometimes 2 somewhat surname today 3 together tomorrow' tonight 3 wardrobe without 1 In a different sense some body may be two words, some being then an tuijortive. EXAMPLE: The eclipse was caused by the passage of some body between the earth and the sun. 7 Sometime (one word, an adverb} should be distinguished from some time (two words, meaning a considerable period). EXAMPLE: Sometime I hope to go to Europe. My brother has spent some time there. 1 To-day, to-morrow, and to-night used to be considered the proper forms and an- still preferred by some writers, but the forms without the hyphen are also in general use. CAPITALIZATION AND SPELLING 167 120. Words Employing the Hyphen. Compounds beginning with the following words are almost always written with hyphens: by by-laws, by-path, by-products, etc. extra extra-fine (but extraordinary). father (xi'.s/er, son, etc.) mother-city, sister-church, brother-mason, son- in-law, etc. (but fatherland). fellau fellow-man, fellow-servant, etc. (but fellowship). ind quarter) half-moon, half-mast, quarter-mile. self self-evident, self-supporting. world (worldly) world-empire, worldly-minded. A great many compound adjectives require the hyphen in order to prevent ambiguity or awkwardness. (Incorrect) (Correct) 1. Even ten story buildings are 1. Even ten-story buildings are rare in Europe. rare in Europe. 2. The home of the Anglo-Saxons 2. The home of the Anglo-Saxons was a low lying section. was a low-lying section. 3. My home made pickles are 3. My home-made pickles are delicious. delicious. 4. A tall, red haired man greeted 4. A tall, red-haired man greeted me. me. Many prefixes and some words are followed by the hyphen when they terminate in a letter the same as that beginning the root syllable or the next word. ipi.Ks: pre-eminent, co-ordinate, bell-like, head-dress, night- time, pale-eyed. In printing, the dieresis ( ) is sometimes used over the second of the two vowels that meet, instead of the hyphen between them. MPI.KS: preeminent, cooperate. f-e the effect on the meaning secured by making one word out of two or nimv - parate words. What are the dif- between the following pair-'.' (1) A hot-bed and a hot bed. ol and a dancing school. (3) A sidewalk and a side walk. 168 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH How many meanings can you get from the following words by inserting hyphens? (1) Twenty five cent pieces. (2) A man eating tiger. EXERCISE 69 Correct all errors you find in the following list (some expressions are now correct) : self seeking fellowservant no-thing bookkeeping log book alright homelike any thing ail-though cannot every timo anywhere onto toyshop not withstanding book o by ways today life blood cold drawn elsewhere school hoi percent life long world politics half turn church wedding moon shim- water-tight any body ice-man nearby drugstore ice-cream over anxious sometime self-reliance more over rabbitskin 121. Spelling Out Numbers. In general it is best to write out in words all numbers from one to one hundred inclusive. ;>t as indicated in the next section; and likewise all large

numbers that may bo spoken of as hundreds, thousands, etc.

i :\ IMP]

The distance is about eighty-five miles, and there are two stations
about ten miles apart.

It was pos>il>le to secure about nineteen hundred recruits from'a
county of twenty-five thousand population.

Note, however, that while we write out twenty-five thousand,
we preferably use figures to express 25,500, because it would
bo awkward to spell this all out. Some special points worth
noting are:

(a) Always spell out a number beginning a sentence.

(Incorrect) (Correct)

109 men constituted the force. One hundred nine men constituted

the force.
Or : The force consisted of 109 men.

CAPITALIZATION AND SPELLING 166

(b) Spell out the time of day (but figures are used in time
tabl.

EXAMPLE : seven-thirty.

(c) Spell out ages.

KXAMPLK: eighti-fii years, seven months.

(d) Spell out sums of money less thdn a dollar (except in
lists containing sums of more than a dollar), and "round
numbers" in larger amounts.

MPLES: It cost ninety cents.

I paid thirty dollars for it.

122. When Figures May Be Used. The practice explained
in the foregoing section applies to ordinary writing in which
numbers are not extensively used. In writing that involves
extensive use of statistics of any sort, figures are used much
more freely, both to save space, and to save time for the reader.
The general principle is not to spell out numbers of a com-
plicated nature. Thus we use figures for:

(a) Dates.

\MPLK: M:iy 24, 1895.

(b) Dollars and cents.

EXAMPLE: $4.7_>.

%

(c) Street numbers of houses and other buildings.
EXAMPLE : 753 Washington Street.

(d) Numbers of three figures or more that are not even
hundreds, thousands, etc.

: 204 (but two hundred), 11,260 (but eleven thousand).

(d) Per c-nt and ratio (except in writing of a distinctly
literary character).

cut mi ln.-ui.'-; tin- ratio in 2 to 3.

170 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

(e) A list of articles, a group of dimensions, or any series
of numbers or collection of statistics that would become tire-
some to the reader if spelled out.

EXAMPLES:

Please send 2 doz. no. 4622 shirts, size 16.

In 1896 there were 11 cases of small pox, 242 of measles, 112

of tetanus, etc.
The living room was 16 by 24 feet; the dining room, 15 by 1*; the

kitchen, 12 by 14. l

EXERCISE 7O

Correct the following:

1. The Panama Canal is 50 miles long. It was begun in nineteen hundred

and four. Lieut. Col. Geo. W. Goethals was made chief engineer
in nineteen hundred seven. The average depth is 42 I

2. His bill was seven dollars and eighteen cents for board and $.90 for

1 tundry. There was a $5.00 charge extra for his 7-year-old boy.

3. 69 divorces per 100,000 were granted in Alabama in 1900, as against

10 for the KUDO population in 1870.

4. At 7:30 the man died aged S7 years, seven months, and 24 days.

5. The room was eighteen by six by 12 feet and would accommodate 10

machines costing eighteen dollars and sixty cents each on a daily
outlay of $.80 e

'. <> or 7 of us fellows planned to go camping at 67th and the lake. I had
only 2 dollars but my cousin had Sii.l.V, so we decided tofrnt a tent.

, 123. Some Rules of Spelling. English spelling is notorious-
ly inconsistent and confusing, so that in general the spelling
of each word is learned by itself; nevertheless there are some
rather simple rules that will be helpful in spite of the fact
that there are exceptions to most of them.

Rule I. Monosyllables and words accented on the last
syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded by a single
vowel, double the final consonant before a suffix beginning
with a vowel.

EXAMPLES: run, running; admit, admitting.

1 In a story, however, if the dimensions were given at all, they would be spelled out.

CAPITALIZATION AND SPELLING 171

But note that if the accent is not on the last syllable there is
no doubling.

EXAMPLE: profit, profiting.

Note also that two vowels preceding the final consonant
obviate the doubling.

EXAMPLE: conceit, conceited.

Rule II. Final silent e is generally dropped before a suffix
beginning with a vowel and retained before a suffix beginning
with a consonant.

EXAMPLES: raro, racing; hope, hoping; arrange, arrangement.
EXCEPTIONS: judgment, acknowledgment, abridgment.

A further group of exceptions to Rule II occur because
c and g are generally hard before a, o, and u, and soft before
e, i, and y. In such words as change and peace, the addition
of able would, according to Rule II, bring g and c before a,
making these letters hard. To indicate the soft pronunciation,
it is necessary to retain the e at the end. Therefore we have
changeable, peaceable, and similar spelling of a few other words
(traceable, etc.).

Rule III. In general there are adjectives ending in able
corresponding to nouns ending in ation; but if there is no noun
ending in ation, the adjective ends in ible. In the latter case
there is often a noun ending in ibility.

EXAMPLES: accusable (adj.); accusation (n.)

conformable (adj.); conformation (n.)
admissible (adj.) There is no noun admissation.
defensible (adj.) There is no noun defensation.

Rule IV. To avoid confusion between ei and ie, the follow-
ing jingle may be helpful:

/ !>;

( >r \vln-M souni md is not lone

friend, kerchief, mischief, sieve, view.

Rule V. Words of two or more syllables rarely end in
double I; words of one syllable rarely end in one I.

until, till; fulfil, fill.
KXCKPTIONS: foretell, undersell, recall, misspell.

Rule VI. The ending ize is more common in America than
The following words are sometimes misspelled because
they end in the less common way:

advertise chastise demise supervise

enfranchise compromise advise surprise

EXERCISE 71

1. Write all the adjectives and nouns you know that are
related to the following verbs and verb-roots:

flex (bend) digest invert dur (last)

fuse irritate separate detest

limit extend repi damn

admit navigate via ace

collect calculate vary negotiate

CAPITALIZATION AND S1>HLLIN(J 173

2. Among the exceptions to Rule III are the adjectives
related to the following verbs. Form the adjectives.

teach break pay read depend

sale laugh eat love receive

EXERCISE 72

1. Form the present participles of the following verbs:

give sin bluff shriek sit

play fan rough dine set

trace make seek write lay

2. Add able to the following:

like space place peace

trace plac (please) renew mend

3. Are the following words correctly spelled?

advertise lovable feasible abridgment

Lble lining weird placement

convertible trimming leisure believe

foretell skilful awful restful

124. Learning the Troublesome Word. The following ex-
ercises contain lists of troublesome words which appear with a
Jarity that makes their mastery once and for all impera-
Avoid the feeling that some of them, like until, are so
a-ily -polled that they do not merit attention. Experience
has shown that little words make more than their share of
trouble. 1-W instance, no and know, new and kneio, are con-
tinually confused. Bear in mind that misspelling a long word
;-ed, but missing a short and common word i-
as evidence of incompetency.

pupil, through many failures, gets the idea that he

i<>t a "natural speller." He even begins to believe that

nature failed to equip him with the ability to 8pe.ll, and as a

6fl not try to improve. Son he mn-'nler-

174

VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

the teacher unreasonable in demanding that he spell ordinary
words correctly. Usually such a pupil misspells one or two
hundred different words persistently and spells all other words
correctly. Because the list is somewhat extended he fails to
note that he is misspelling the same word again and again;
whereas if he were aware of the great number of times he mis-
spells that one word, he would take the time to learn it and
end a series of errors. Six months of careful study of his own
errors will generally remove most of the difficulty.

EXERCISE 73

A prominent business firm at one time employed the follow-
ing list of words in the examinations it required of stenographers.
Can you spell every word?

1. likelihood

2. commensurate

3. addicted

4. excessive

5. descent

6. ascertain

7. tariff

8. schedule

9. foreclose

10. mortgage

11. lien

12. interfere

13. legitimate

14. grateful

15. edition

16. petition

17. council

18. legibly

19. description

20. company

21. latter

22. useful

23. device

24. referred

25. principal

26. stationary

27. library

28. advice

29. canvas

30. canvass

31. prestige

32. lose

33. stationery

34. loosely

35. eligible

36. accidentally

37. conscientious

38. judgment

39. accommodate

40. concern

41. recommend

42. congratulate

43. imitation

44. mahogany

45. accrued

46. bankruptcy

47. rolls

48. hysterical

49. aisle

50. calendars

51. measurements

52. bulletin

53. dissatisfied

54. embarrassing

55. culpable

56. definition

57. adequate

58. ridiculous

59. cargo

60. conscience

61. attic

62. basement

63. feasible

64. precedent

65. annoyance

66. anonymous

67. deceased

68. diseased

69. indebtedness :

70. redeemable

71. competitors

72. hazard

73. expenditure

74. extension

75. interference

CAPITALIZATION AND SPELLING

EXERCISE 74

175

The following is a list of common words that are very fre-
quently misspelled. Words mentioned in Exercises 73 and
75-77, inclusive, are here omitted. Study these words care-
fully and master the spelling of any that have troubled you.

1. across

38. despair

75. maintenance

2. address

39. destruction

76. manageable

;i 11 right

40. development

77. marriage

4. amateur

41. difference

78. mathematics

5. answer

42. dining

79. meanness

0. apart

43. disappear

80. meant

7. apparatus

44. disappoint

81. measles

8. appearance

45. discipline

82. misspell

9. approach

46. dissipated

83. murmur

10. argument

47. duly

84. mystery

11. arouse

48. etc.

85. necessary

12. arrangement

49. exaggerate

86. nickel

13. arrival

50. excellent

87. ninety-ninth

14. article

51. existence

88. noticeable

15. autumn

52. experience

89. oblige

16. awful

53. fascinate

90. occurring

17. awkward

54. Filipino

91. omitted

18. bachelor

55. foretell

92. operate

19. baggage

56. forty-four

93. opportunity

20. balance

57. gasoline

94. optimism

21. barbarous

58. gauge

95. original

eetaeak

59. grammar

96. oxygen

23. beginning

60. humorous

97. parallel

JL beiiffiting

61. hundred ths

98. paralyze

rakeman

62. incident

99. Philippines

63. independent

100. picnicking

riage

64. indispensable

101. possession

28. cemetery

65. infinite

102. possibly

29. chestnut

66. insistent

103. practical

:;u. dothes

67. intelligible

104. prairie

.umn

68. kerosene

10."). preceding

69. laid

100. preference

70. license

107. prejudice

71. lightning

10^. preparation

nvalescent

7J. li(juefy

109. privilege

73. loneliness

110. procedure

37. dc-t.

74. loveliness

111. professor

176

VOCATIONAL KNUL1SH

112. pumpkin

113. pursue

114. questionnaire

115. reference
HO. rhythm

117. safety

118. sandwich
11'.). Saturday

120. sentence

121. separate
^hepherd

12:5. similar

124. sincerely

125. solemn

126. sophomore

127. specimen

128. speech (but speak >

129. spoonfuls

130. succeed

131. sufficient

132. superintendent

133. supersede

134. tassel

135. together
130. truly

137. Tuesday

138. turkey

139. twelfth

140. tyranny

141. umbrella

142. usually

143. vaccinate

144. vegetable

145. vengeance

146. vertical

147. villain

148. visible

149. weather

150. Wednesday

151. which

152. woolly

153. yacht

EXERCISE 75

"ii to spell the following words that arc often confused.
Use each in a sentence or phra- to make sure that you know
the meaning.

to take

except to leave OUt

affect to act on

effect (n.) result, (v.) accomplish

angel a heavenly bein<: angle a corner aimer a tool for boring auuur to predict or indicate It augurs ill. base (n.) the bottom, (a.) vile a deep tone 1 In-side at the side of besides in addition to ;>rake a device to stop a vehicle
hreak to destroy

i-:ilivas cloth

advice noun
advise- verb

altar in a church
alter to change

i :\ climb
assent to agree to

uncovered
bear (v.) to carry, (n.) an animal

berth a bed

birth beginning of life

born brought into the world
borne carried

cannon a gun
canon a law

The canons of the church.

capital the chief city, money

canvass to sell from house to house capitol a government building

1 /fan* (with a short a) is the name of a ti-h.

CAPITALIZATION AND SPELLING

177

ceiling covering of a room
pealing closing up tight

choose present tense
chose past tense

not fine
course ground traversed

complement that which completes
compliment praise

creak to make a noise
creek a small stream

deceased dead
used ill

device noun
devise verb

emigrant one who leaves a country
immigrant one who arrives in a
country

faint weak

feint a mock attack

farther applied to distance
further applied to logical relation
I would say further that it is
farther than you realize.

formally according to form
ly previously

jiuilt state of having committal

line

choir a group of singers
quire 24 sheets of paper

chord in music
cord a string or rope

colonel an officer
kernel meat of a nut

council a body of men
counsel an advisor, or advice

currant a fruit

current the flow of a stream

desert a desolate place

dessert the last course at a meal

dyeing coloring
dying giving up life

emigration going from a country
immigration coming to a country

faker one who swindles (slang)
fakir a Mohammedan religious
devotee

finally at last
finely in small parts

gait manner of walking
liate an opening in a fence

grisly horrible
grizzly grayish

EXERCISE 76

Learn the meaning and the spelling of the following words.
K-h in a sentence or a phni<\ to make well hind part of foot hear to pem-ive -at this place -d to store Up selfishly horde a wild multitude 178 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH impassable not to be passed impassible reserved knew past tense of know new not old l.-iti-r -used of time hitter used in reference -to make less lesson something to be learned marten an animal (one of the weasels) martin a bird (one of the swal- lows) miner one who mines minor one under age prndant a hanging jewel ornament pendent hanging precede to go before proceed to continue prophecy (n.) a prediction prophesy (v.) to predict quiet still quite entirely real genuine reel a revolving device right correct rite a ceremony write to put words on paper sleight skill (sleight of hand) slight small their possessive of they there an adverb of place ingenious clever at contriving ingenuous frank know to understand no not any lead (v.) to conduct, (n.) a metal led past tense cf had (v.) loose adjective lose verb meat flesh (a.) proper, (v.) to come together mete mea peace freedom from strife piec< a portion or fragment pillar a column pillow a cushion principal (adj. ) first principle (n.) osence, primary, element (Principal is a noun when it means principal teacher or prin- cipal sum.) propose to suggest to others purpose intention rabbet the groove on matched lumber rabbit hare receipt acknowledgment of re- ceiving recipe a formula, or list of in- gredients road a street rode past tense of ride rowed past tense of row stationary not moving stationery writing material tli or of or for it therefore consequent ly CAPITALIZATION AND SPELLING 179 to a preposition too an adverb two a number weak feeble week seven days ware a class of material wear to be dressed in where a question of place EXERCISE 77 The following words are often misspelled because they are mispronounced. Write a phrase or short sentence containing .each. Pronounce the words carefully. accidentally not accidently aeroplane (now often airplane not aereoplane or areoplane arctic, antarctic not artic, antartic asked (past tense) not ask athletic not athaletic or atheletic boundary not boundry brethren not brethern ' casualty not casuality children not childern February not Febuary forward not foward government not goverment grievous not grievious or grevious height not heighth incidentally not ineidently irrelevant not irrevelant laboratory not labratory or labatory I -not larnyx library- -not libary lightened not lightninged mrningitis - riot incngitis militarism not milituryism mischievous not mischievious Niagara not Niagra nominative not nomitive occasionally not occasionly particularly not particurly partner not pardner perambulate not preambulate percolator not perculator personally not personly perspiration not prespiration pronunciation not pronounciation recognize not reconize repetition not repitition ridiculous not rediculous sacrilegious not sacreligious specialty not speciality studying not studing suggestion not sujjestion superfluous not superfulous surprised not suprised temperament not temperment while, whether, etc. not wile, wether, etc. QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER X 1. ('an \ou give two general principles of syllabication'.' '_' \Vh;it is the general law concerning the breaking of a word at the line? perial d:n In- con!> (not

rout<- 'root, not rowt) root (not r
pur' port
quay (kee)
rapine (rft:

regime (ra /.hern )
reg'ular (not regler)
rch

rce'

MO (ra zu ma )

ille (re val'y&; in U. S. Army,
rev'ale')
robust'

romance'

roof (sound as in boot)
salmon (sam'un)
salve (sav)

sati.-ty (sa ti'e ty)
w-'nlle (butsenll'ity)
since (never wnse)
.-Iwk (.s/i'c/; is vulgar)
.-lovcn (slfr.

stjualid CskwOlid)
'lor

Btd'bd

MI!) tie (suttle)

(sweet)
Up'ki

ti.-kli-li (not tichcliah)

i^aw)

\\hctl i iveather)

not wear)

o y)
z56lVv (four Ml!.-. I

make. pretense

pretty faces

patented process

a protege of Saint Gaudens

puerile affectation in speech

purport of the message

the boats along the quay

rapine, pillage, and murder

recess time

ancient regime

regular verbs

research in chemistry

resources of a bank

a resume" of the report

bugles sound reveille

robust boy

a modern romance

roof of a house

Columbia River salmon

put salve on a wound

to eat to satiety

senile debility

since yesterday

the cat's sleek fur

slovenly homes

seek solace

squalid huts

squalor and decay

the status of the case

a stolid countenance

a subtle, unseen influence

suite of rooms

tepid water

ticklish bib !

vagaries of fate

a vaudeville entertainment

.ous witnesses
lords and viscount^

and corn
whether or not
when- and when
yeast for the bread

v and !.

190 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER XI

1." What are some of the faults of American speech? How can they
be eradicated?

2. How does America of today differ from the America of a generation
or two ago with regard to speech requirements?

3. What is the difference between enunciation and pronunciation?

4. Is poor enunciation the result of laziness or of hurry or of both?

5. What is the difference in sound between 60 and uf Pronounce
multitude, food.

6. How can one learn to pronounce correctly wheat, where, etc.?

7. Do you know the diacritical markings? If not, consult a good
dictionary and familiarize yourself with these very necessary symbols now.

CHAPTER XII

l.XERCISES FOR REVIEW

This chapter consists of a series of exercises in review cf the
previous chapters of the book. The exercises are intentionally
varied in the hope of cultivating alertness to all kinds of bad
Knglish. Reasons for every correction should be given. If
you do not understand the trouble, in each case go back to
the text and master the principle. "There is no royal road to
ietry," said Euclid to the prince of Egypt; neither is there
an easy road to correct English or, for that matter, to any-
thing worth while. Only the penetrating force of your own
mind will determine the degree of your success. Resolve now
to understand the reasons for every correction you can make
in Kxi'ivises 85 to 100.

EXERCISE 85

Which of the alternative forms is correct in each of the
following sentences?

1. 10 very person should be proud of (himself, themselves) and conscious

of a power to do. (Sec. 59.)
'J. With her :md (/, me) the case is somewhat different. (Sec. 64.)

3. The lawyers proved beyond doubt that it was (him, he) who forged the

62.)

4. They chose alternately 1 (he, him) and (/, me) to stand guard. (Sec.

i !< (. If v. .-is only (him, his) having been warned that saved Tom and (/,

1.)

<'/,f/of.s/<'Orunno\v (like. .M it lifted to. (Sees. 54, 79 d.) & II- /; l>:ick to

I tier. (What other trouble is there in this sontei.

'Wat- '\n.

Thcro arc two word* /-/. Use them both in sentences.

191

192 VOCATIONAL HNdLISH

EXERCISE 86

Which of the following sentences are 1 right? Correct those
that are wrong and give reasons.

1. Each of them were doing ell they could to save them.

2. Use three spoonsful of water to one of flour.

3. I like Dicken's Darid Copperfield exceedingly.

4. He was sick so I had t<: t.-ike his place. 5. The alumni of Vassar had a meeting with WP. I) Ks. (Three errors.) 6. The forget-me-not's are blooming there tod:iv. 7. He made pictures of the fungi with both foci of his lens. 8. Thorn's two sides to every question. 9. I could of done it but I was to tired. (Two errors bad ones, too.) 10. Have a pencil and paper ready so that it 2 can be used for taking orders. EXERCISE 87 Correct the following: 1. When was Greece and Rome gr '2. Children should be allowed to Me notion pictures if they are good. :>. Why don't the rich man pay his taxes?

4. The little car with two of it's tires flat finished first.

5. Be sure and visit Mary when you are to Hoston.

6. There was an argument as to whom should pay the bills.

7. When a person grows old they like to have their own way.

8. A person should not be of a nature, which when anyone criticizes

them they get angry.

9. We couldn't hardly see the road.
10. He acts like he owned the earth.

EXERCISE 88

Some of the following are right. Which are they? What
is wrong with the others? Correct them.

1. I think Henry is queer; he don't seem to notice his friends.

2. As soon as I had eaten the cake I felt sick.

3. This is one of the five best books which has come out this ye:ir.

4. It was the supremest effort of his life.

5. If there was only a bridge at the river!

'Should are be changed to iff
'What?

EXERCISES FOR REY1KW 193

6. It was not Murphy but I who finally pot the job.

7. One of the grandest sights in the world are the Pyramids.

8. This data mui, lai>h down yesterday after lunch.

8. (She, her) and her sister were the only one's I knew. (Find an error

in a phi;

'irge number of mules (was, urr< ) shipped to Europe. 10. I had IP in the ocean before. EXERCISE 9O Which of the following arc wrong? Why? Make correc- tion- where they arc necessary. 1. I w.-.s so senred I couldn't remember what my name was. (Has the '!'.') -. I dislike fcn *f.ld you more than any one. (Me: ning?) - too busy to p-ad the paper. I. II'. in MX foot of water. (Three en I -ked him. and he said I could. ' T than a dog. to thorn:: ich sentc I V I 'li ID pie. :id I for ! 10 I 1!M VOCATIONAL KXdLISH EXERCISE 01 Fill the blanks with shall, will, should, or wouki.. Review Sections -1.") and 4(>.

1. you be working tomorrow'.'

2. you do me a favor?

Mr. Brown look after the east door," said the Principal.

I. "I shall not go," said Brown to Jones. Jones reports to Smith,

"Brown said he not go."

">. My son go to school tomorrow for I see to it myself.

6. My niece start to school next September and I take

pleasure in making things pleasant for her.

7. He assured me that the price rise.

8. I don't believe ho ev< r bo well again. '.. He belli Y.-S that he not be able to meet us. 10. If I go, they W(,uld be glad. EXERCISE 92 rrcct the following and j>ive reason-:

1. Then- is at least in most civilixed countries, more women than men.

2. Like a flash the animal had sprang from the raft and swam the narrow

channel.

;!. I asked mother if I could go with Jimmio.
1. His wife was whom?
.">. The knife was carefully lain aw
r>. He might employ only two helpers; accordingly he hired a bookkeeper

and stenographer.

7. I wanted fudire so badly.

8. What's the French colors'.'
'.. What sort of a cow is that?

10. The man who was dead was a negro. (Shorten this.)

EXERCISE 93

Make all needed corrections in the following. Some of
them are now correct. Tell why.

1. They took us to be them.

2. A baseball is more nearly round than a football.

3. Let you and me go swimming.

4. It was wo whom the officer saw.

5. An example of generosity is seen in Richard the Lion-hearted, who,

history tells us, forgave his brother John's rebellion.

6. They decided to raise the building about seven inches higher.

EXEKCISES FOR REVIEW 195

7. They wanted Charlie and I to play Indian.

8. We never worry now like we used to do.

9. "Will you help me?" "Sure."

10. Now you'll have to do it all over again.

EXERCISE 94

Correct the following wherever necessary:

1. Finally she laid down in the water to escape detection.

2. Whom can I believe if not him?

3. We read of a king having lost his throne through the lack of a horse-

shoe nail.

4. Prominent men like you and he cannot afford to be wrong.

5. The witness swore it was them, not us, whom Murphy saw.

6. Take one home for yourself and wife.

7. I'll walk a little way with you.

8. Everything from knives to scarves were marked down.

9. Potatoes sold for fifty cents a peck.
10. Walk quiet or you'll wake the baby.

EXERCISE 95

Correct the following :

1. If we win today we will have made it five straight.

2. I think we will be able to go.

3. I seen my duty and I done it.

4. I dropped the ring in the \v:it<-r. ou can't go without he p M. He found his hat in back of the dresser. 7. The man differed so violently from us that we were forced to part with him in London. 8. You can hire whoever you want to do it. !. He is the tallest of the two brothers. 10. They chose me rather than they. EXERCISE 96 Correct the following : 1. 1 .very one in the audience had tears in their eyes. 2, Hamilton and Burr fought a dual. a gun, a phonograph, and a pair of skates lor Christmas. I 1 itter her 4. I ran pick cherries faster than anybody. "). We felt kind a lonesome so 1 I with mama and I. 6. There should he le-s than tlm to many for there purpose. 106 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 7. I fully expected to have been present. (A common error. Expect- ed looks toward the future. The infinitive here is perfect [have]; which way does it look?) 8. I never saw anything as beautiful as them roses. (Make two changes.) 9. The cup is neither made of copper or bronze. 10. A dog is the noblest of animals. (Is another the needed?) EXERCISE 97 Write the plurals of the following: I echo elf mouse brother 13 die wife fox aviator parenthesis oasis zero reef hoof money bill of fare thesis loaf EXERCISE 08 Write sentences employing the following words: 1. principal and principle 11. canvas and canvass 2. there and their 12. compliment and complement 3. affect and effect (as a verb) 13. farther and further 4. purpose (as a verb) and propose 14. impassable and impassible 5. quite and quiet 15. allusion and illusion 6. advise and advice 16. ingenious and ingenuous 7. devise and device 17. auger and augur 8. accept and except 18. council and counsel 9. to and too 19. grisly and grizzly 10. hung and hanged 20. cannon and canon EXERCISE 90 Complete the following words by adding ise or ize: % advert merchand summar compr modern surpr tempor chast enfranch util civil magnet superv. EXERCISE 1OO Form the present participle of each of the following words. The rule is to be found in Section 123, II, but the starred forms are exceptions. Try to form a rule for the exceptions. change dye* awe tie* hope encourage return die* blue shoe* hoe* sing agree* make ice tinge* judge glue PART TWO COMPOSITION LETTERS ADVERTISING CHAPTER XIII COMPOSITION ORAL AND WRITTEN 133. The Need of Practice in Composition. Every bit of talk for a purpose and every bit of writing for a purpose involves composition the putting together of ideas so that they will, if ible, accomplish the desired purpose. Effective self- expression demands, first of all, the power to use the means of expression correctly; but you may know all the principles of correct English developed in the first part of this book, and yet fail in composition through lack of practice. It is the pur- pose of this and the following chapters to provide the necessary practice. 134. The Opportunity of Conversation. Oral composition talk for a purpose is doubtless, the most common kind of composit ion, 1 hough too often it is not thought of as composit ion ;l. When you are going to make personal application for -it ion. do you plan what you shall say and how you shall it? Do you try to imagine the, questions the employer will a-k you, and decide what answers you can give him? Do you thought to the sort of impression you will make upon him by ii of appearance, a self-respecting bu1 modest man- and enunciation, and correct Knglish? The-e .-ill elements of sucre^ful oral composition. Ton many of us n-iranl we do water something that i>

i necessary but very little pri/ed because it i-
If we were limited in the upeak slowly. We instinctively feel that over-
hurried, careless speech indicates a hasty, uninformed mind.

(c) They speak in a moderate tone. We lose confidence
almost the instant that we discover the speaker is excited or in
some other way not in complete control of himself.

(d) They do not repeat; they say what they mean clearly
and fully the first time.

136. The Manner of Speaking. Some excessive rudeness
has found its way into English speech in the name of speed.
Many men answer the telephone, for example, in a "what do
you want" mood that is anything but polite. The rudeness
is the greater for the very reason that the speaker is at a safe

COMPOSITION ORAL AND WRITTEN 199

distance. This sort of thing "does not pay," however. No
man can afford to be brusque. Employers will seldom tolerate
impolite employees. The following excellent advice, which
may be applied more widely than it was originally intended,
is reprinted by permission of the Chicago Telephone Com-
pany :

COURTESY BETWEEN TELEPHONE USERS

Would you rush into an office or up to the door of a residence and
blurt out, "Hello! Hello! whom am I talking to?" and then when you
receive a reply, follow up your wild, discourteous salutation with, "I
don't want you; get out of my way. I want to talk with Mr. Jones"?
Would you? That is merely a sample of the impolite and impatient con-
lons that the telephone transmits many times a day.

There is a most agreeable mode of beginning a telephone conversation
which many people are now adopting, because it saves useless words and
is, at the same time, courteous and direct. It runs thus:

The telephone bell rings, and the person answering it says: "Morton

& Company, Mr. Baker speaking." The person calling then says: "Mr.

Wood of Curtis & Sons wishes to talk with Mr. White." When Mr. White

picks up the receiver, he knows Mr. Wood is on the other end of the line,

and without any unnecessary and undignified "hellos," he at once greets

him with the refreshingly courteous salutation: "Good morning, Mr.

1." That savors of the genial handshake Mr. Wood would have

-d had he called in person upon Mr. White.

Undoubtedly there would be a far higher degree of telephone courtesy,
particularly in the way of reasonable consideration for the operators, if
the "face-to-face" idea were more generally held in the mind. The fact
that a line of wire and two shining instruments separate you from the
n with whom you are talking takes none of the sting out of unkind
words.

Telephone courtesy means answering the telephone as quickly as \>>-
eible when the hell rings not keeping the "caller" waiting untilone gets
good and ready to answer.. Telephone courtesy, on party-lines, means
being polite when some one else unintentionally breaks in not snapping,
"Get off the line; I am using it."

In a word, it is obviously true that that which is the correct thing to

i a face-to-face conversation, is also correct, in a telephone com.
tion, ari'l any one has but to apply the rules of courtesy prescribed long
year.- t thought of, to know the proper inan-

conM'lerate, ;md courteous.
Do o you would do face-to-face.

200 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

EXERCISE 1O1

Study some of the following subjects until you are sure you
can say something interesting about them. Then plan what
you have to say, with the hearer in mind. Make your talk so
plain that the hearer cannot misunderstand. In other words,
be sure you have something that he wants to hear and make
sure that he hears it. Be ready, the day after tomorrow, to
discuss before the rlu>s one of the topics. In talking remember
the following P<>i'

(a) Speak slowly; don't use too many words. 'Talk is

cheap" the kind that requires many words for one idea.

(b) Tell the first thing first. Remember that your hearer
has no way of knowing what you have in mind except through
your own words.

(c) Speak confidently. You are the man who knows, and
for the time being you are the most important member of the
class.

(d) Stand erect, without leaning on anything. It is only
weak things that need support.

Avoid "\VyV (why's) and "ah's." Do not string
your sentences together with "ami's. "

(f) When you have fini>hed, stop with a strong point.
Many ,a good address has been spoiled by a half score of verbal
postscripts.

BVBJ

1. Why I H:tv<> :i Right to Live. If a burglar wore to come into your
house and upon point; away leave the house poorer for his visit,
would you consider him within his rights? Had ho a right to
When a man comes into our house (the world) and leaves us poorer
when he dies, had he a right to what ho took?

J. The Worst Quality a Man Can Havo --( 'owardiro. Why does n man
lie? Is it because he is afraid of the consequences of something ho
has done, if the truth is known? Why will a man st.-.-il? Isn't it
because he is afraid to meet other men on ecjual footing?

1. If You Want a Thing Well Done, Don't Do It Yourself. This is the
ago of specialization.

COMPOSITION ORAL AND WRITTEN 201

4. "Simon Says 'Thumbs Up.' " Simon (fashion) says "Tight sleeves";

all the girls comply. Simon says "Now automobile shape"; Father
mortgages the homestead.

5. Early to Red Makes a Man Ignorant.

6. Good Results of Women's Gossip.

EXERCISE 1O2

Arrange a ato with members of another class or with
members of your own class. Ask your teacher to help you
arrange your thoughts in a forceful way. Debating is like
football: the winners must have "steam" and be able to
concentrate on one spot. Suggested subjects follow:

->lvod: That the Sporting Page Does More Harm than Good.
J. M. -solved : That the Comic Supplement Should Be Prohibited by Law.

3. Resolved: That Breaking Quarantine Should Constitute a Crime

Punishable on a Par with Stealing.

4. Resolvi-d: That :i Stenographer Should Not Transcribe Letters Con-

taining Lies. (People will call at the "rail" and ask her concerning
these things; then she will have to lie directly.)

137. General Instructions as to Written Composition.
Whatever our feeling as to mere "talk" may be, we all realize
that when we sit down to write something, we are engaged in
composition. Yet here also we are too careless; here also wo
need patient practice. Good English flows easily as if t In-
writ er were careless of form, allowing words to fall naturally
into place. But this is only a seeming carelessness; writing
even simple Kngli>h requires a good deal of thought in phrasing
ami often considerable rephrasing to avoid misunderstandings.
In the composition exercises that follow, these fundamental
point- aa to form must be borne in mind:

1. IVe ink (or typewriter) in all composition. Few
t or import ant records are made in pencil.

_. Use only g [paper of fairly large size. Kight and a half

by eleven indies is a desirable

reful. Don't blot a paue. Leave a margin at the
>\\d your VfOrdl 01 linefl tOQ Closed V g< ' her. pride in th- Sfl and orderliness of your work. 202 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 4. Give each piece of work an appropriate brief title, written in the middle of the top line of the first page ; and leave a blank between the title and the composition. 5. Avoid especially these two blunders: (a) The use of a comma to hold together unconnected members of a compound sentence. (See Section 10.) (Incorrect) (Correct) First feed your engine gas, to do First food your engine gas. To this turn down the lever on the do tliis. turn down the lever on the .-leering wheel. steering wheel. Or First feed your engine gas; to do this, turn down the lever on the steering wheel. Remember that the semicolon may be used as in the second "correct" example only when there is a clear M-DM- relation between the clauses. (See Section 97.) (b) The failure to build similar parts of a sentence on the same plan. (See Section 157.) (Incorrect) (Correct) To start a car give it gas and To start a car give it gas and then the starter is pushed. push the starter. Give it gas and push the starter are of similar construction. 138. The Simple Style in Writing. If you were to go to- morrow to an aviation school, should you attempt to fly alone within a month? Would it be advisable for you to attempt trick flying until you had learned simple flying? And isn't it probable that many boys and girls could never learn the more dangerous aerial work because they are physically unfit for it? Similarly, none but the writer of long and successful experience should attempt to write as did some of the masters of English prose. Ordinary persons should be content with plain state- ments and simple words. It is usually futile for the school boy or girl to attempt written eloquence. In fact, few of our great writers employed an elaborately sustained style. Even Stevenson, one of the best of stylists, COMPOSITION OKA L AND WKMTTKX 203 commonly used short words and direct sentences. His style is so natural that the reader is generally unconscious of any effort in reading. Note the simplicity of the following extract from Treasure Island. Are the words long or hard? Do you have any trouble in following the story? Can you picture the captain and the sea-shore? It was one January morning, very early a pinching, frosty morning the cove all gray with hoarfrost, the ripple lapping softly on the stones, the sun still low and only touching the hilltops and shining far to seaward. The captain had risen earlier than usual, and set out down the bearh, his cutlass swinging under the broad skirts of the old blue coat, his brass ope under his arm, his hat tilted back upon his head. I remember his breath hanging like smoke in his wake as he strode off, and the last sound I heard of him, as he turned the big rock, was a loud snort of in- dignation, as though his mind yas still running upon Dr. Livesey. Well, mother was upstairs with father; and I was laying the breakfast table against the captain's return, when the parlor door opened, and a man stepped in on whom I had never set my eyes before. He was a pale, tallowy creature, wanting two fingers of the left hand ; and, though he WOK a cutlass, he did not look much like a fighter. I had always my eye open for seafaring men, with one leg or two, and I remember this one puz/led me. He was not sailorly, and yet he had a smack of the sea about him, too. I ;i>ked him what was for his service, and he said he would take rum;
but as I was going out of the room to fetch it he sat down upon a table
and motioned me to draw near. I paused where I was with my napkin
in my hand.

"Come here, sonny," says he. "Come nearer here." I took a step

!iis here table for my mate Bill?" he asked, with a kind of leer. .

139. Expressive English. In general the style of writing
which gives the most thought per word is best, just as the
automobile tire which gives the most miles of service per
dollar cost i- lu>t. Sometimes a single word will give a wealth
of in i equal to that of a complete sentence or even half

je of ordinary coin po>it ion.

A pupil wrote of a young man a^ "going timidly up tin- exil
of the elevated'* (railroad). Now alnn, one livinu

in a lar.L'- <'ity ha> at times stalled up the exit stain they

204 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

are just like the entrance stairs except for the signs but
after a few steps the big blue and white "Exit only" has sent
him down quickly. Going "timidly" up the exit, however,
proves that the young man was not merely careless. "Timidly' '
speaks of ignorance of the city, embarrassment, and general
inexperience. That one word is worth several sentences.

In the following sentence from David Harum, note the
effect of the word lowered. Could you in half a page give as
much information about David's manner of eating or his
station in life as is expressed in the one word l>ir< rl.' David threw hack his head and lowered a stalk of the last asparagus of the year into his mouth. Note the words caved in in the following. Do they mean more than that his hat is out of shape? I come down here with my h:tt caved in, I'm goin' back home with a pocket full of tin. Song, "Camptown Races," Foster What do you know about a man who calls money ///// Try, then, to write in a simple way, but to express as much as possible in a few words. Tell nothing that your reader will resent as needless information. And don't have the sun sink in resplendent glory into a sea of molten gold', have it set. The remainder of this chapter consists of simple exercises in which the precepts that have been given are to be put into effect. EXERCISE 103 1. What qualities do you -associate with the following word groups? For instance: Isn't a man with gray eyes generally cool given to taking care of his own money somewhat stern? large diamond ring stubby nails large watch ch::rrn gray eyes shuffling gait heavy beard bald head trousers tight over run-over shoes blue eyes knees cob pipe curly hair celluloid collar yellow teeth COMPOSITION ORAL AND WRITTEN 205 2. Use each of the following adjectives with some suitable noun: fantastic consummate illiterate luxuriant scintillating pusillanimous petulant pallid perturbed ramshackle torrid typical tallowy taut. irritable credulous resolute malcontent solitary cunning EXERCISE 1O4 Write a short paper on one of the following subjects: 1. The Earliest Thing I Can Remember. 2. Thimis I Won't Do Again. 3. Buying Things You Don't Want. 4. Nicknames I Have Had. 5. Getting Out on the Wrong Side of the Bed. 6. The Kind of Boy I Think My Father Was. EXERCISE 105 Write a short paper on one of the following: 1. One Thing a Boy Scout Must Know. J. Why a Bucket of Water Set in the Storage Room Will Help to ; > Vegetables from Freezing. (Ask some one who knows.)

3. The Purpose of a Silo.

4. What One Can Learn on a Street Car.

5. Why Salt on the Sidewalk Removes Ice.

6. Getting Something for Nothing.,

7. I 1 .f Being Poor.

8. Should a Boy Know Art and Music?

!'. Why Do B..YS ll.-.vc Buttons on Their Coat Sleeves? (Discuss

r'on-e of tradition.)
10. Swimming with the Australian Crawl Stroke.

EXERCISE 1O6

Write several short paragraphs of advice on one of the
following subjects. Jirg'm with ,l/f/v///x, or Never.

of H:ihv.

2. i : .schall (or Tennis, Football, <>tc.)

3. Learning t< Swim. 6. I 7. LnTroobk or the Temcher t or the Preacher). 206 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH EXERCISE 1O7 After you have gathered the material necessary to a report for your history or commercial geography class, discuss with your English teacher the most effective way to organize it. Write the paper under the English teacher's direction. EXERCISE 1O8 Girls: Write a paper on the subject: Wall Paper Its Relation to the Use of the Room. Boys: Assume that you are the editor of a Question and Answer column in the sporting sheet of a great newspaper. Answer clearly but briefly the following questions: With the bases full the batter hits a short fly to the left fielder. Thinking it will be caught, the runners hug their bases. The fielder holds the lull a half second, drops it at his feet, and then throws home. The h.dl 13 quickly relayed to third and second. Are three men out? Has the fielder a right to drop a ball purposely? EXERCISE 1O9 What I Found Most Interesting in the Advertisements in this Month's (any magazine). Go carefully through the advertising pages, marking what interests you. Tell in a short paragraph just why you are interested. Do not include a discussion of two advertisement a in one paragraph. EXERCISE HO Write a composition of about two hundred words on one of the following subjects: 1. Benefits of Crying. 2. If I Were a "Movie" Censor. 3. Absence Makes the Grades Grow Poorer. 4. Ways of Sharpers. 5. Songs That Live. 6. What I've Thought Most About during the Last Week. COMPOSITION ORAL AND WRITTEN 207 EXERCISE 111 Write a paper on one of the following subjects. Don't explain too closely. Let the reader "see the point." 1. Why I Didn't Get There on Time. 2. On Forgetting a Friend's Name. 3. How I Feel after Seeing a "Movie." 4. Caught Talking to Myself. 5. How My Aunt Wants Me to Act. 6. When Tom Didn't Think Far Enough. (For instance, when he decoyed Rover under a hornet's nest and threw a stone through it.) QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER XIII 1. Is knowledge of how a bicycle is balanced sufficient, or must one practice riding? Is composition practice necessary? 2. To what extent do you judge a stranger by his speech? 3. What is the difference between self-confidence and egotism? Hmv <-:m one show self-confidence without being thought "overbearing"? 4. Describe the manner of speech employed by men of force. o. What is the correct way of answering the telephone? Why is dis- courtesy over the telephone worse than rudeness face to face? 6. What is meant by the instruction, "Tell the first thing first"? 7. Two special errors are noted in the general directions for written composition. What are they? 8. What are the salient features of the quotation from Stevenson on page 203? '.. What is "fine writing"? Why should one avoid it? CHAPTER XIV ORGANIZING A COMPOSITION 140. The Need of Organization. Writing should, first of all, transmit information from the writer to the reader. If the reader of a letter, for instance, fails to understand, the letter is a failure and represents lost time and money. The material must be discussed in a clear and systematic order if the purpose of writing is to be accomplished. But a letter lacking clearness is more than a waste of time and money; it often prejudices the reader against the writer. Business men are coming to recognize the fact that every letter going out from their hou>-< i- an advertisement, whether or not it contains "selling argument." A letter, like a man, makes an impression. A good impression leads to confidence ami future business. On the other hand, after a bu-y man has \va-ted his valuable time puzzling over the meaning of a letter, he i- not usually in a mood favorable to the writer. 141. The Paragraph. The writer who thinks clearly will naturally divide his subject into steps or divisions. Each of these divisions of thought should ordinarily have a paragraph to itself. Accordingly each paragraph should treat only the one topic assigned to it. It should be so organized that the reader will know upon beginning it what the paragraph is about, and upon finishing, exactly what the writer's ideas upon the topicare. Furthermore, each paragraph will be set off so as to appeal to the eye at a glance. Its first line will be indented plainly and other lines will not be indented. All spare will be- filled to the right margin, except possibly the last line. 142. Paragraphing Business Correspondence. Not even in literature is correct paragraphing so important as in the busr letter. Business is possible only by doing intensively one thing at a time. The successful business man develops to extra- ordinary efficiency the power of turning instantly from one " 2C8 ORGANIZING A COMPOSITION 209 subject to another; but he wants these subjects to be complete in themselves and clearly distinguished from each other. Thus a business man will, on writing a letter dealing with three things, form three distinct sections, usually paragraphs* And when he passes from one topic to the next he will naturally give definite notice of the change. A clear thinker will treat each subject so thoroughly that he will have no further need of saying anything about it unless a summary is needed. EXERCISE 112 Make such notes as the person dictating the following let- ter may have had before him. What plan had he in mind? Chicago, Illinois December 20 ; 19_ Mr. Howard Endren Hotel Henderson Columbus, Ohio My dear Endren: I was talking over the Youngstown business with Mr. Waldron yesterday, and he suggested that since you are in Columbus it will be a saving of time and money for you to run up to Youngstown and look after the cases there. He feels sure, as I do, that you will use the best of judg- ment, although the work is a little out of your line. If possible, get away from Columbus Monday night, for you may have trouble at Youngstown, and we cannot spare more than two days on the three cases there. Call on .Airs. .lames \\Vscott, 311 Front Street. Make a full settle- ment and collect waiver. The case is regular. ' of your time will be taken up with the Norton case. Ascertain the following points: - he drunk the day of the accident? Find out from his neighbors, his employer.^, and any other sources, what his habits with regard to drink are. \\ hat is the reputation of the physician upon whose report the d.iim was made? If you are suspicious, have another medical >rt immediately.

that Orumbaki 1 eor-

if the policy. You will see (lie error,
will finl i data under separate cover.

Your* HM'-rrrly,

!i!i: Accident [nauraoG

:.!() VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

Consider the following points in relation to the foregoing
letter-

1. How many paragraphs are there?

2. Why is the first so much longer than the second?

3. Is Paragraph 4 a "brother" of Paragraph 2 or a "nephew"? Ex-

plain.

4. What is the relation of Paragraph 3 to Paragraph 4? To Paragraph

2?

5. Why WHS not the 7th joined to the 6th instead of being made a

separate paragraph?

143. Paragraphing in Ordinary Composition. A little study
of any piece of good writing will reveal, not a hit-or-miss manner
of presentation, but an orderly system based on clear thinking
and careful organization. With this truth in mind, examine
the following paragraphs; then state the subject of each:

In 1870 I happened to be on a train that was stopped for three hours
to let a herd of buffalo pass. Wo supposed they would soon pass by, but
they kept coming. On a number of occasions in the earlier days the
engineers thought that they could run through the herds, and that, seeing
the locomotive, the buffalo would stop or turn aside; but after a few loco-
motives had been ditched by the animals the engineers got in the way of
respecting the buffalo's idiosyncrasies.

I p to within a few years, in northern Montana and southern Alberta,
old buffalo trails have been readily traceable by the eye, even as one p
on a railroad train. These trails, fertilized by the buffalo and deeply
cut so as to long hold moisture, may still be seen in summer as green lane.s
winding up and down the hills to and from the water courses.

For many years I have held the opinion that in early days on the plains,
as I saw them, antelope were much more abundant than buffalo. Buffalo,
of course, being big and black, were impressive if seen in masses and were
visible a long way off. Antelope, smaller and less conspicuous in color,
were often passed unnoticed. 1

144. Indicating the Subject of a Paragraph. It is generally
possible, in the case of writing intended mainly or merely to
give information, to learn from the first sentence of a well-made
paragraph what the paragraph is about. Such a title or sul >jeet

1 From an article by Dr. George Bird Grinnell in the National Geographic Magazine,
November, 1917.

ORGANIZING A COMPOSITION 211

- ntence is called a topic sentence. Notice the following
topic sentences from The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table,
ly Oliver Wendell Holmes:

1. "You don't know what I mean by the green state? Well, then, I will
tell you." (Explanation of the green slate follows.)
There are two kinds of poets just us there are two kinds of blondes."
(Explanation and comparison.)

3. "My friend the Professor began talking with me one day in a dreary
sort of way." (Then follows an explanation that friends were
bediming to regard him as old.)

Kx ample 3 was chosen to illustrate the fact that the topic
sentence does not always indicate the subject matter of the
paragraph; in this case the mood of the Professor is indicated.

Topic sentences may occur at some other point than the
l'irinning of a paragraph, but in most writing for practical
purposes it is best to begin with a clear indication of the topic.

EXERCISE 113

Consider the following questions in relation to the passage
quoted from Doctor Grinnell in Section 143:

1. What is discussed in each paragraph?

udy the first sentence in each paragraph. Does this sentence give.

you the substance of the paragraph?

.".. \\ 1; t is the nature of the other sentences in each paragraph?
1. \Vh.-it do we call the first sentence of a paragraph of the sort illustrated?

hat does the newspaper reporter call such a first sentence? (See

\MU \\en- trying to ^et the substance of an article hurriedly, what
i i you read? \Yh:it would be your success in this particular
case? 'I : i in other articles.

145. The Making of a Plan. An extensive piece of com-

iin usually ha> divisions lamer than ;:iragrapi
autl i.nuk tfenenilly decides upon his chapter subj

ui the details of each chapter, and finally

the cha;

212 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

For illustration, suppose an author intends writing a book
on the subject, " Making the Small Farm Pay." He decides
that his book must treat the following topics :

Live Stock, Soil Fertility Location

Poultry The Dairy Buildings

Fruit Machinery Crops

These subjects, he sees, must be chapter headings. He
has yet to arrange them in logical order; i.e., he must decide
which chapter is to come first, which second, etc. On think-
ing the matter over and concluding that Location should come
first, ho letters it (a); Buildings (b); and so on through the list
MS indicated below:

GO Live Stock c) Soil Fertility (a) Location

(i) Poultry (h) The Dairy (b) Buildings

(f) Fruit (e) Machinery (d) Crops

A letter or a short composition might be written without a
rearrangement of these topics in logical order; but most writers,
< -inriallv in the case of a book, would prefer to make a new plan in the order of the letters, as follows : 00 Location (d) Crops (g) Live Stock (b) Build; (e) Machinery (h) The Dairy (c) Soil Fertility (f) Fruit (i) Poultry The writer's noxt task is the expansion of the chapter headings. He must think over the things he has to say about (f), for instance. Doubtless he would have material on insect pests, scales,- pruning, setting, cultivating, variety, etc. He would have to arrange these subjects in logical order. Then further subdividing would be necessary. There are a possible dozen insect pe.-is that would have to be described carefully. This outlining would be continued until the plan of each chapter had been worked out. Then the actual writing would begin. 146. Faults in the Planning of School Themes. Of course, no composition required of an ordinary student will need a plan so extensive as that described in the preceding section. Never- ORGANIZING A COMPOSITION 213 theless, a little experience will teach that the best way to make haste in composition is to plan thoroughly what you intend to -ay before you begin the actual writing. Do not be dis- couraged, either, if your first attempts are not entirely satis- factory. Be on your guard against three common faults in planning, as follows : 1. A too minute division of the subject. You must not forget that each final division of your plan is usually to be a paragraph and should, therefore, represent a section of the subject large enough to need a paragraph. EXAMPLE of too minute division: Subject Central Park 1. Location 2. Size 3. Purpose etc. In a short theme, location and size may be very adequately treated in a single paragraph. 2. Too extensive planning. A very brief plan may call for a long composition; much depends on the scope of the different topics. A common tendency of the beginner is to try to deal with material sufficient for an extended essay. Thus he begins a plan for a short composition on cotton as follows : 1. Countries producing it 2. Kinds of cotton 3. The climate required 4. Planting 5. Picking 6. Ginning 7. Carding etc. Obviously there is sufficient material for a short composition in any nn> <,f thc-e divisions, alum-, if fully developed. This 'sts the need of very definitely limiting one's subject and ona'a purpn-c in composition. arrangement. Sometimes it is hard to decide nlcr in which to present one's material. Thus, 214 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH in the final plan in Section 145, topic (f ) might exchange places with (e), so far as one can tell from so general a plan; but (g), (h), and (i) are clearly a related series of topics that should not be separated by (f) or by any other topic in the list. The greatest care to keep related topics together is always necessary. 147. The Paragraphing of Conversation. The student has doubtless heard a ventriloquist taking a dual role in a vaude- ville act. A part, at least, of his deceptive art is due to the difference in pitch or quality of tone between the ventrilo- quist's own voice and that which seems to come from his dummy. In written conversation there is no such natural means of indicating the speaker. Accordingly the writer must resort to some other method of showing who is talking. There are several devices regularly employed for this purp< one of them is the paragraph. Note the paragraphing in the following extract from /> Automobile.

4. Courage the < Asset in a Boy's Character. (Show that lyin, is due to fear of consequent 5. C Modern Industry. 6. What t .ints. 7. Things I Shouldn't Do and Why. 8. A'